If you read How Two-stroke Engines Work, you learned that one big difference between two-stroke and four-stroke engines is the amount of power the engine can produce. The spark plug fires twice as often in a two-stroke engine -- once per every revolution of the crankshaft, versus once for every two revolutions in a four-stroke engine. This means that a two-stroke engine has the potential to produce twice as much power as a four-stroke engine of the same size.
The two-stroke engine article also explains that the gasoline engine cycle, where gas and air are mixed and compressed together, is not really a perfect match for the two-stroke approach. The problem is that some unburned fuel leaks out each time the cylinder is recharged with the air-fuel mixture. (See How Two-stroke Engines Work for details.)
It turns out that the diesel approach, which compresses only air and then injects the fuel directly into the compressed air, is a much better match with the two-stroke cycle. Many manufacturers of large diesel engines therefore use this approach to create high-power engines.
The figure below shows the layout of a typical two-stroke diesel engine:
At the top of the cylinder are typically two or four exhaust valves that all open at the same time. There is also the diesel fuel injector (shown above in yellow). The piston is elongated, as in a gasoline two-stroke engine, so that it can act as the intake valve. At the bottom of the piston's travel, the piston uncovers the ports for air intake. The intake air is pressurized by a turbocharger or a supercharger (light blue). The crankcase is sealed and contains oil as in a four-stroke engine.
The two-stroke diesel cycle goes like this:
When the piston is at the top of its travel, the cylinder contains a charge of highly compressed air. Diesel fuel is sprayed into the cylinder by the injector and immediately ignites because of the heat and pressure inside the cylinder. This is the same process described in How Diesel Engines Work.
The pressure created by the combustion of the fuel drives the piston downward. This is the power stroke.
As the piston nears the bottom of its stroke, all of the exhaust valves open. Exhaust gases rush out of the cylinder, relieving the pressure.
As the piston bottoms out, it uncovers the air intake ports. Pressurized air fills the cylinder, forcing out the remainder of the exhaust gases.
The exhaust valves close and the piston starts traveling back upward, re-covering the intake ports and compressing the fresh charge of air. This is the compression stroke.
As the piston nears the top of the cylinder, the cycle repeats with step 1.
From this description, you can see the big difference between a diesel two-stroke engine and a gasoline two-stroke engine: In the diesel version, only air fills the cylinder, rather than gas and air mixed together. This means that a diesel two-stroke engine suffers from none of the environmental problems that plague a gasoline two-stroke engine. On the other hand, a diesel two-stroke engine must have a turbocharger or a supercharger, and this means that you will never find a diesel two-stroke on a chain saw -- it would simply be too expensive.
วันศุกร์ที่ 14 สิงหาคม พ.ศ. 2552
Diesel Fuel Injection
Diesel Fuel Injection
One big difference between a diesel engine and a gas engine is in the injection process. Most car engines use port injection or a carburetor. A port injection system injects fuel just prior to the intake stroke (outside the cylinder). A carburetor mixes air and fuel long before the air enters the cylinder. In a car engine, therefore, all of the fuel is loaded into the cylinder during the intake stroke and then compressed. The compression of the fuel/air mixture limits the compression ratio of the engine -- if it compresses the air too much, the fuel/air mixture spontaneously ignites and causes knocking. Because it causes excessive heat, knocking can damage the engine.
Diesel engines use direct fuel injection -- the diesel fuel is injected directly into the cylinder.
The injector on a diesel engine is its most complex component and has been the subject of a great deal of experimentation -- in any particular engine, it may be located in a variety of places. The injector has to be able to withstand the temperature and pressure inside the cylinder and still deliver the fuel in a fine mist. Getting the mist circulated in the cylinder so that it is evenly distributed is also a problem, so some diesel engines employ special induction valves, pre-combustion chambers or other devices to swirl the air in the combustion chamber or otherwise improve the ignition and combustion process.
Photo courtesy DaimlerChrysler Atego six-cylinder diesel engine
Some diesel engines contain a glow plug. When a diesel engine is cold, the compression process may not raise the air to a high enough temperature to ignite the fuel. The glow plug is an electrically heated wire (think of the hot wires you see in a toaster) that heats the combustion chambers and raises the air temperature when the engine is cold so that the engine can start. According to Cley Brotherton, a Journeyman heavy equipment technician:
All functions in a modern engine are controlled by the ECM communicating with an elaborate set of sensors measuring everything from R.P.M. to engine coolant and oil temperatures and even engine position (i.e. T.D.C.). Glow plugs are rarely used today on larger engines. The ECM senses ambient air temperature and retards the timing of the engine in cold weather so the injector sprays the fuel at a later time. The air in the cylinder is compressed more, creating more heat, which aids in starting.
Smaller engines and engines that do not have such advanced computer control use glow plugs to solve the cold-starting problem.
Of course, mechanics aren't the only difference between diesel engines and gasoline engines. There's also the issue of the fuel itself.
One big difference between a diesel engine and a gas engine is in the injection process. Most car engines use port injection or a carburetor. A port injection system injects fuel just prior to the intake stroke (outside the cylinder). A carburetor mixes air and fuel long before the air enters the cylinder. In a car engine, therefore, all of the fuel is loaded into the cylinder during the intake stroke and then compressed. The compression of the fuel/air mixture limits the compression ratio of the engine -- if it compresses the air too much, the fuel/air mixture spontaneously ignites and causes knocking. Because it causes excessive heat, knocking can damage the engine.
Diesel engines use direct fuel injection -- the diesel fuel is injected directly into the cylinder.
The injector on a diesel engine is its most complex component and has been the subject of a great deal of experimentation -- in any particular engine, it may be located in a variety of places. The injector has to be able to withstand the temperature and pressure inside the cylinder and still deliver the fuel in a fine mist. Getting the mist circulated in the cylinder so that it is evenly distributed is also a problem, so some diesel engines employ special induction valves, pre-combustion chambers or other devices to swirl the air in the combustion chamber or otherwise improve the ignition and combustion process.
Photo courtesy DaimlerChrysler Atego six-cylinder diesel engine
Some diesel engines contain a glow plug. When a diesel engine is cold, the compression process may not raise the air to a high enough temperature to ignite the fuel. The glow plug is an electrically heated wire (think of the hot wires you see in a toaster) that heats the combustion chambers and raises the air temperature when the engine is cold so that the engine can start. According to Cley Brotherton, a Journeyman heavy equipment technician:
All functions in a modern engine are controlled by the ECM communicating with an elaborate set of sensors measuring everything from R.P.M. to engine coolant and oil temperatures and even engine position (i.e. T.D.C.). Glow plugs are rarely used today on larger engines. The ECM senses ambient air temperature and retards the timing of the engine in cold weather so the injector sprays the fuel at a later time. The air in the cylinder is compressed more, creating more heat, which aids in starting.
Smaller engines and engines that do not have such advanced computer control use glow plugs to solve the cold-starting problem.
Of course, mechanics aren't the only difference between diesel engines and gasoline engines. There's also the issue of the fuel itself.
Diesel Engines vs. Gasoline Engines
In theory, diesel engines and gasoline engines are quite similar. They are both internal combustion engines designed to convert the chemical energy available in fuel into mechanical energy. This mechanical energy moves pistons up and down inside cylinders. The pistons are connected to a crankshaft, and the up-and-down motion of the pistons, known as linear motion, creates the rotary motion needed to turn the wheels of a car forward.
Both diesel engines and gasoline engines covert fuel into energy through a series of small explosions or combustions. The major difference between diesel and gasoline is the way these explosions happen. In a gasoline engine, fuel is mixed with air, compressed by pistons and ignited by sparks from spark plugs. In a diesel engine, however, the air is compressed first, and then the fuel is injected. Because air heats up when it's compressed, the fuel ignites.
The following animation shows the diesel cycle in action. You can compare it to the animation of the gasoline engine to see the differences:
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Your browser does not support JavaScript or it is disabled.
Image courtesy Baris Mengutay
The diesel engine uses a four-stroke combustion cycle just like a gasoline engine. The four strokes are:
Intake stroke -- The intake valve opens up, letting in air and moving the piston down. Compression stroke -- The piston moves back up and compresses the air. Combustion stroke -- As the piston reaches the top, fuel is injected at just the right moment and ignited, forcing the piston back down. Exhaust stroke -- The piston moves back to the top, pushing out the exhaust created from the combustion out of the exhaust valve.
Remember that the diesel engine has no spark plug, that it intakes air and compresses it, and that it then injects the fuel directly into the combustion chamber (direct injection). It is the heat of the compressed air that lights the fuel in a diesel engine. In the next section, we'll examine the diesel injection process.
Compression
When working on his calculations, Rudolf Diesel theorized that higher compression leads to higher efficiency and more power. This happens because when the piston squeezes air with the cylinder, the air becomes concentrated. Diesel fuel has a high energy content, so the likelihood of diesel reacting with the concentrated air is greater. Another way to think of it is when air molecules are packed so close together, fuel has a better chance of reacting with as many oxygen molecules as possible. Rudolf turned out to be right -- a gasoline engine compresses at a ratio of 8:1 to 12:1, while a diesel engine compresses at a ratio of 14:1 to as high as 25:1.
Both diesel engines and gasoline engines covert fuel into energy through a series of small explosions or combustions. The major difference between diesel and gasoline is the way these explosions happen. In a gasoline engine, fuel is mixed with air, compressed by pistons and ignited by sparks from spark plugs. In a diesel engine, however, the air is compressed first, and then the fuel is injected. Because air heats up when it's compressed, the fuel ignites.
The following animation shows the diesel cycle in action. You can compare it to the animation of the gasoline engine to see the differences:
");
//-->
Your browser does not support JavaScript or it is disabled.
Image courtesy Baris Mengutay
The diesel engine uses a four-stroke combustion cycle just like a gasoline engine. The four strokes are:
Intake stroke -- The intake valve opens up, letting in air and moving the piston down. Compression stroke -- The piston moves back up and compresses the air. Combustion stroke -- As the piston reaches the top, fuel is injected at just the right moment and ignited, forcing the piston back down. Exhaust stroke -- The piston moves back to the top, pushing out the exhaust created from the combustion out of the exhaust valve.
Remember that the diesel engine has no spark plug, that it intakes air and compresses it, and that it then injects the fuel directly into the combustion chamber (direct injection). It is the heat of the compressed air that lights the fuel in a diesel engine. In the next section, we'll examine the diesel injection process.
Compression
When working on his calculations, Rudolf Diesel theorized that higher compression leads to higher efficiency and more power. This happens because when the piston squeezes air with the cylinder, the air becomes concentrated. Diesel fuel has a high energy content, so the likelihood of diesel reacting with the concentrated air is greater. Another way to think of it is when air molecules are packed so close together, fuel has a better chance of reacting with as many oxygen molecules as possible. Rudolf turned out to be right -- a gasoline engine compresses at a ratio of 8:1 to 12:1, while a diesel engine compresses at a ratio of 14:1 to as high as 25:1.
READY TO DOMINATE OFF-ROAD: 2010 FORD F-150 SVT RAPTOR CUSTOMER INTEREST, ORDERS TAKE FLIGHT
SUMMARY:
Interest in the 2010 5.4-liter F-150 SVT Raptor is exceeding expectations, with more than 1,500 customer orders already received and 300,00 visits to Raptor Web page, reflecting high demand and excitement for all-new truck
Initial dealer orders for Raptor max out capacity at plant
To meet demand for more F-150 SVT Raptor content, a series of Webisodes will be released featuring NASCAR driver Greg Biffle, off-road racing legend Rob MacCachren and SVT Chief Nameplate Engineer Jamal Hameedi
CONTEXT / BACKGROUND:
Ford’s 2010 F-150 SVT Raptor is a high-performance off-road truck with an avid audience that’s been waiting a long time to get behind the wheel. Able to perform both off-road and on-, the truck has been teasing fans with video clips circulating on both YouTube and the F-150 SVT Raptor Web page. The excitement that has been building is showing up in tangible numbers – more than 1,500 orders for the 5.4-liter SVT performance truck, which is now arriving in dealer showrooms.
DETAILS:
It survived the grueling Baja 1000 and earned a podium finish. It’s desert-tested and street-ready. And now the F-150 SVT Raptor is ready to go home with its customers.
More than 1,500 orders received for the 5.4-liter F-150 SVT Raptor exceeds expectations and shows the extraordinary level of anticipation for this high-performance truck. In fact, initial dealer orders have the Dearborn Truck Plant building Raptors at maximum capacity, reflecting the strong demand for the first-ever factory high-speed off-road truck.
Color popularity is decidedly in favor of Raptor-exclusive Molten Orange Metallic Tri-Coat, and Tuxedo Black, with each color representing 40 percent of orders. Customers also want their off-road truck complete with lots of options. Orders reflect consumers’ appetite for technology with:
More than 80 percent ordered with Luxury Package, which includes heated seats, 10-speaker Sony® Audio system and dual zone temperature control
55 percent with Navigation, Sony Audio and SIRIUS Travel Link™
60 percent with Exterior Graphics Package
70 percent with power moonroof
Orders for Raptor have come from all across the United States, with 94 percent coming from males with a median age of 39. A survey of customers placing retail orders shows that:
16 percent purchased F-150 SVT Raptor as a collectible
31 percent purchased F-150 SVT Raptor for off-roading
19 percent purchased F-150 SVT Raptor for towing and hauling
The very first 5.4-liter F-150 SVT Raptor was sold last year at Barrett-Jackson for $130,000, and now trucks are arriving at dealerships. The first F-150 SVT Raptor retail sale was recorded as going to an off-road enthusiast in Sterling Heights, Mich. The owner of the new Raptor actually had to walk the last two miles to the Suburban Ford dealership to pick it up after getting a flat tire on his bike. And he isn’t wasting any time – the off-roader has already hit the sand dunes in northern Michigan with his new Raptor.
Fully loaded Web page lures in visitorsWhen customers want to learn more about F-150 SVT Raptor, they know where to go – http://www.fordvehicles.com/f150raptor?glbcmp=ford|news-announcements|fordvehicles – which focuses on everything Raptor. After launching in March, the Web page has tallied more than 300,000 visitors through June. Since the site first came to life, visitors haven’t stopped checking it out – on average, 75,000 potential customers continue to visit each month.
More than half of all visits last more than five minutes, with plenty of videos, images and information available to give potential customers the latest on F-150 SVT Raptor. In fact, the videos have been viewed nearly 400,000 times and the video completion rate is at or above that of other very successful vehicle launches.
Links are provided to other off-road sites and nearly 20,000 visitors have entered a contest to win a ride in an actual off-road desert race. Whether consumers are watching the F-150 SVT Raptor R race across the Baja Peninsula or listening to what Linsey Weenk, driver of Ford’s “Blue Thunder” monster truck, has to say about F-150 SVT Raptor, they can’t get enough. Unique applications on the Web page, like a 360-degree view of Raptor flying through the air, also give visitors a thorough perspective of the truck and allow them to get a closer look at the features that make it such a highly capable off-road vehicle. By clicking over Raptor components, such as the FOX Racing Shox internal bypass shocks, massive skid plates, unique design cues and wheels and tires, visitors can learn more about what gives this truck a competitive edge.
Another high-interest Web page element is the “Build a Raptor” feature, where visitors can select the color and options to create a truck with the content they desire. Almost half of all visitors have gone into the page, with 97 percent finishing it. Customers are encouraged to take the downloadable spec sheet to dealers to order their own truck. To get Raptors in the hands of off-road racing enthusiasts, Ford is prioritizing production scheduling of those orders.
A little something from the expertsCustomers know that the F-150 has legendary Built Ford Tough durability and toughness, but some might not be familiar with proper off-roading techniques. Or they might not realize how and why the F-150 SVT Raptor does so well in all off-road environments, not just the desert. A series of videos will be added to the F-150 SVT Raptor Web page that will provide customers with everything they want to know about this one-of-a-kind truck.
Featuring NASCAR driver Greg Biffle, off-road racing legend Rob MacCachren and SVT Chief Nameplate Engineer Jamal Hameedi, the Webisodes will give consumers an even closer look inside the SVT performance truck so they’ll know all the ins-and-outs.
Building momentumThe all-new 2010 Ford F-150 SVT Raptor has been touring the country, giving enthusiasts a taste of what it’s like behind the wheel. Stops at auto shows, NASCAR races, Monster Truck events, Barrett-Jackson auctions and off-road races have exposed more than 10 million enthusiasts to Raptor. Some events include the unique opportunity for a high-speed ride in the Raptor with a professional driver, with more than 1,000 rides given.
QUOTES:
“Nobody has ever done a product like this, so people are really excited. This is the ultimate expression of “Built Ford Tough.” They’re anxious to get this truck in their driveway and then take it off-roading on weekends. Customers appreciate the authenticity of the F-150 SVT Raptor and realize the value for money, given the capabilities of this truck. The initial response for the 5.4-liter engine is fantastic, and there’s even more demand for the upcoming 6.2-liter engine.”
– Mark Grueber,F-150 marketing manager
“People want to see the F-150 SVT Raptor in action, and they want to know everything about the truck. Raptor’s Web page provides that and the numbers are impressive – it shows a need for as much Raptor content as we can throw at them.”
– Brian Bell,F-150 consumer marketing manager
###
About Ford Motor CompanyFord Motor Company, a global automotive industry leader based in Dearborn, Mich., manufactures or distributes automobiles across six continents. With about 205,000 employees and about 90 plants worldwide, the company's automotive brands include Ford, Lincoln, Mercury and Volvo. The company provides financial services through Ford Motor Credit Company. For more information regarding Ford's products, please visit www.ford.com.
Interest in the 2010 5.4-liter F-150 SVT Raptor is exceeding expectations, with more than 1,500 customer orders already received and 300,00 visits to Raptor Web page, reflecting high demand and excitement for all-new truck
Initial dealer orders for Raptor max out capacity at plant
To meet demand for more F-150 SVT Raptor content, a series of Webisodes will be released featuring NASCAR driver Greg Biffle, off-road racing legend Rob MacCachren and SVT Chief Nameplate Engineer Jamal Hameedi
CONTEXT / BACKGROUND:
Ford’s 2010 F-150 SVT Raptor is a high-performance off-road truck with an avid audience that’s been waiting a long time to get behind the wheel. Able to perform both off-road and on-, the truck has been teasing fans with video clips circulating on both YouTube and the F-150 SVT Raptor Web page. The excitement that has been building is showing up in tangible numbers – more than 1,500 orders for the 5.4-liter SVT performance truck, which is now arriving in dealer showrooms.
DETAILS:
It survived the grueling Baja 1000 and earned a podium finish. It’s desert-tested and street-ready. And now the F-150 SVT Raptor is ready to go home with its customers.
More than 1,500 orders received for the 5.4-liter F-150 SVT Raptor exceeds expectations and shows the extraordinary level of anticipation for this high-performance truck. In fact, initial dealer orders have the Dearborn Truck Plant building Raptors at maximum capacity, reflecting the strong demand for the first-ever factory high-speed off-road truck.
Color popularity is decidedly in favor of Raptor-exclusive Molten Orange Metallic Tri-Coat, and Tuxedo Black, with each color representing 40 percent of orders. Customers also want their off-road truck complete with lots of options. Orders reflect consumers’ appetite for technology with:
More than 80 percent ordered with Luxury Package, which includes heated seats, 10-speaker Sony® Audio system and dual zone temperature control
55 percent with Navigation, Sony Audio and SIRIUS Travel Link™
60 percent with Exterior Graphics Package
70 percent with power moonroof
Orders for Raptor have come from all across the United States, with 94 percent coming from males with a median age of 39. A survey of customers placing retail orders shows that:
16 percent purchased F-150 SVT Raptor as a collectible
31 percent purchased F-150 SVT Raptor for off-roading
19 percent purchased F-150 SVT Raptor for towing and hauling
The very first 5.4-liter F-150 SVT Raptor was sold last year at Barrett-Jackson for $130,000, and now trucks are arriving at dealerships. The first F-150 SVT Raptor retail sale was recorded as going to an off-road enthusiast in Sterling Heights, Mich. The owner of the new Raptor actually had to walk the last two miles to the Suburban Ford dealership to pick it up after getting a flat tire on his bike. And he isn’t wasting any time – the off-roader has already hit the sand dunes in northern Michigan with his new Raptor.
Fully loaded Web page lures in visitorsWhen customers want to learn more about F-150 SVT Raptor, they know where to go – http://www.fordvehicles.com/f150raptor?glbcmp=ford|news-announcements|fordvehicles – which focuses on everything Raptor. After launching in March, the Web page has tallied more than 300,000 visitors through June. Since the site first came to life, visitors haven’t stopped checking it out – on average, 75,000 potential customers continue to visit each month.
More than half of all visits last more than five minutes, with plenty of videos, images and information available to give potential customers the latest on F-150 SVT Raptor. In fact, the videos have been viewed nearly 400,000 times and the video completion rate is at or above that of other very successful vehicle launches.
Links are provided to other off-road sites and nearly 20,000 visitors have entered a contest to win a ride in an actual off-road desert race. Whether consumers are watching the F-150 SVT Raptor R race across the Baja Peninsula or listening to what Linsey Weenk, driver of Ford’s “Blue Thunder” monster truck, has to say about F-150 SVT Raptor, they can’t get enough. Unique applications on the Web page, like a 360-degree view of Raptor flying through the air, also give visitors a thorough perspective of the truck and allow them to get a closer look at the features that make it such a highly capable off-road vehicle. By clicking over Raptor components, such as the FOX Racing Shox internal bypass shocks, massive skid plates, unique design cues and wheels and tires, visitors can learn more about what gives this truck a competitive edge.
Another high-interest Web page element is the “Build a Raptor” feature, where visitors can select the color and options to create a truck with the content they desire. Almost half of all visitors have gone into the page, with 97 percent finishing it. Customers are encouraged to take the downloadable spec sheet to dealers to order their own truck. To get Raptors in the hands of off-road racing enthusiasts, Ford is prioritizing production scheduling of those orders.
A little something from the expertsCustomers know that the F-150 has legendary Built Ford Tough durability and toughness, but some might not be familiar with proper off-roading techniques. Or they might not realize how and why the F-150 SVT Raptor does so well in all off-road environments, not just the desert. A series of videos will be added to the F-150 SVT Raptor Web page that will provide customers with everything they want to know about this one-of-a-kind truck.
Featuring NASCAR driver Greg Biffle, off-road racing legend Rob MacCachren and SVT Chief Nameplate Engineer Jamal Hameedi, the Webisodes will give consumers an even closer look inside the SVT performance truck so they’ll know all the ins-and-outs.
Building momentumThe all-new 2010 Ford F-150 SVT Raptor has been touring the country, giving enthusiasts a taste of what it’s like behind the wheel. Stops at auto shows, NASCAR races, Monster Truck events, Barrett-Jackson auctions and off-road races have exposed more than 10 million enthusiasts to Raptor. Some events include the unique opportunity for a high-speed ride in the Raptor with a professional driver, with more than 1,000 rides given.
QUOTES:
“Nobody has ever done a product like this, so people are really excited. This is the ultimate expression of “Built Ford Tough.” They’re anxious to get this truck in their driveway and then take it off-roading on weekends. Customers appreciate the authenticity of the F-150 SVT Raptor and realize the value for money, given the capabilities of this truck. The initial response for the 5.4-liter engine is fantastic, and there’s even more demand for the upcoming 6.2-liter engine.”
– Mark Grueber,F-150 marketing manager
“People want to see the F-150 SVT Raptor in action, and they want to know everything about the truck. Raptor’s Web page provides that and the numbers are impressive – it shows a need for as much Raptor content as we can throw at them.”
– Brian Bell,F-150 consumer marketing manager
###
About Ford Motor CompanyFord Motor Company, a global automotive industry leader based in Dearborn, Mich., manufactures or distributes automobiles across six continents. With about 205,000 employees and about 90 plants worldwide, the company's automotive brands include Ford, Lincoln, Mercury and Volvo. The company provides financial services through Ford Motor Credit Company. For more information regarding Ford's products, please visit www.ford.com.
READY TO DOMINATE OFF-ROAD: 2010 FORD F-150 SVT RAPTOR CUSTOMER INTEREST, ORDERS TAKE FLIGHT
SUMMARY:
Interest in the 2010 5.4-liter F-150 SVT Raptor is exceeding expectations, with more than 1,500 customer orders already received and 300,00 visits to Raptor Web page, reflecting high demand and excitement for all-new truck
Initial dealer orders for Raptor max out capacity at plant
To meet demand for more F-150 SVT Raptor content, a series of Webisodes will be released featuring NASCAR driver Greg Biffle, off-road racing legend Rob MacCachren and SVT Chief Nameplate Engineer Jamal Hameedi
CONTEXT / BACKGROUND:
Ford’s 2010 F-150 SVT Raptor is a high-performance off-road truck with an avid audience that’s been waiting a long time to get behind the wheel. Able to perform both off-road and on-, the truck has been teasing fans with video clips circulating on both YouTube and the F-150 SVT Raptor Web page. The excitement that has been building is showing up in tangible numbers – more than 1,500 orders for the 5.4-liter SVT performance truck, which is now arriving in dealer showrooms.
DETAILS:
It survived the grueling Baja 1000 and earned a podium finish. It’s desert-tested and street-ready. And now the F-150 SVT Raptor is ready to go home with its customers.
More than 1,500 orders received for the 5.4-liter F-150 SVT Raptor exceeds expectations and shows the extraordinary level of anticipation for this high-performance truck. In fact, initial dealer orders have the Dearborn Truck Plant building Raptors at maximum capacity, reflecting the strong demand for the first-ever factory high-speed off-road truck.
Color popularity is decidedly in favor of Raptor-exclusive Molten Orange Metallic Tri-Coat, and Tuxedo Black, with each color representing 40 percent of orders. Customers also want their off-road truck complete with lots of options. Orders reflect consumers’ appetite for technology with:
More than 80 percent ordered with Luxury Package, which includes heated seats, 10-speaker Sony® Audio system and dual zone temperature control
55 percent with Navigation, Sony Audio and SIRIUS Travel Link™
60 percent with Exterior Graphics Package
70 percent with power moonroof
Orders for Raptor have come from all across the United States, with 94 percent coming from males with a median age of 39. A survey of customers placing retail orders shows that:
16 percent purchased F-150 SVT Raptor as a collectible
31 percent purchased F-150 SVT Raptor for off-roading
19 percent purchased F-150 SVT Raptor for towing and hauling
The very first 5.4-liter F-150 SVT Raptor was sold last year at Barrett-Jackson for $130,000, and now trucks are arriving at dealerships. The first F-150 SVT Raptor retail sale was recorded as going to an off-road enthusiast in Sterling Heights, Mich. The owner of the new Raptor actually had to walk the last two miles to the Suburban Ford dealership to pick it up after getting a flat tire on his bike. And he isn’t wasting any time – the off-roader has already hit the sand dunes in northern Michigan with his new Raptor.
Fully loaded Web page lures in visitorsWhen customers want to learn more about F-150 SVT Raptor, they know where to go – http://www.fordvehicles.com/f150raptor?glbcmp=fordnews-announcementsfordvehicles – which focuses on everything Raptor. After launching in March, the Web page has tallied more than 300,000 visitors through June. Since the site first came to life, visitors haven’t stopped checking it out – on average, 75,000 potential customers continue to visit each month.
More than half of all visits last more than five minutes, with plenty of videos, images and information available to give potential customers the latest on F-150 SVT Raptor. In fact, the videos have been viewed nearly 400,000 times and the video completion rate is at or above that of other very successful vehicle launches.
Links are provided to other off-road sites and nearly 20,000 visitors have entered a contest to win a ride in an actual off-road desert race. Whether consumers are watching the F-150 SVT Raptor R race across the Baja Peninsula or listening to what Linsey Weenk, driver of Ford’s “Blue Thunder” monster truck, has to say about F-150 SVT Raptor, they can’t get enough. Unique applications on the Web page, like a 360-degree view of Raptor flying through the air, also give visitors a thorough perspective of the truck and allow them to get a closer look at the features that make it such a highly capable off-road vehicle. By clicking over Raptor components, such as the FOX Racing Shox internal bypass shocks, massive skid plates, unique design cues and wheels and tires, visitors can learn more about what gives this truck a competitive edge.
Another high-interest Web page element is the “Build a Raptor” feature, where visitors can select the color and options to create a truck with the content they desire. Almost half of all visitors have gone into the page, with 97 percent finishing it. Customers are encouraged to take the downloadable spec sheet to dealers to order their own truck. To get Raptors in the hands of off-road racing enthusiasts, Ford is prioritizing production scheduling of those orders.
A little something from the expertsCustomers know that the F-150 has legendary Built Ford Tough durability and toughness, but some might not be familiar with proper off-roading techniques. Or they might not realize how and why the F-150 SVT Raptor does so well in all off-road environments, not just the desert. A series of videos will be added to the F-150 SVT Raptor Web page that will provide customers with everything they want to know about this one-of-a-kind truck.
Featuring NASCAR driver Greg Biffle, off-road racing legend Rob MacCachren and SVT Chief Nameplate Engineer Jamal Hameedi, the Webisodes will give consumers an even closer look inside the SVT performance truck so they’ll know all the ins-and-outs.
Building momentumThe all-new 2010 Ford F-150 SVT Raptor has been touring the country, giving enthusiasts a taste of what it’s like behind the wheel. Stops at auto shows, NASCAR races, Monster Truck events, Barrett-Jackson auctions and off-road races have exposed more than 10 million enthusiasts to Raptor. Some events include the unique opportunity for a high-speed ride in the Raptor with a professional driver, with more than 1,000 rides given.
QUOTES:
“Nobody has ever done a product like this, so people are really excited. This is the ultimate expression of “Built Ford Tough.” They’re anxious to get this truck in their driveway and then take it off-roading on weekends. Customers appreciate the authenticity of the F-150 SVT Raptor and realize the value for money, given the capabilities of this truck. The initial response for the 5.4-liter engine is fantastic, and there’s even more demand for the upcoming 6.2-liter engine.”
– Mark Grueber,F-150 marketing manager
“People want to see the F-150 SVT Raptor in action, and they want to know everything about the truck. Raptor’s Web page provides that and the numbers are impressive – it shows a need for as much Raptor content as we can throw at them.”
– Brian Bell,F-150 consumer marketing manager
###
About Ford Motor CompanyFord Motor Company, a global automotive industry leader based in Dearborn, Mich., manufactures or distributes automobiles across six continents. With about 205,000 employees and about 90 plants worldwide, the company's automotive brands include Ford, Lincoln, Mercury and Volvo. The company provides financial services through Ford Motor Credit Company. For more information regarding Ford's products, please visit www.ford.com.
Interest in the 2010 5.4-liter F-150 SVT Raptor is exceeding expectations, with more than 1,500 customer orders already received and 300,00 visits to Raptor Web page, reflecting high demand and excitement for all-new truck
Initial dealer orders for Raptor max out capacity at plant
To meet demand for more F-150 SVT Raptor content, a series of Webisodes will be released featuring NASCAR driver Greg Biffle, off-road racing legend Rob MacCachren and SVT Chief Nameplate Engineer Jamal Hameedi
CONTEXT / BACKGROUND:
Ford’s 2010 F-150 SVT Raptor is a high-performance off-road truck with an avid audience that’s been waiting a long time to get behind the wheel. Able to perform both off-road and on-, the truck has been teasing fans with video clips circulating on both YouTube and the F-150 SVT Raptor Web page. The excitement that has been building is showing up in tangible numbers – more than 1,500 orders for the 5.4-liter SVT performance truck, which is now arriving in dealer showrooms.
DETAILS:
It survived the grueling Baja 1000 and earned a podium finish. It’s desert-tested and street-ready. And now the F-150 SVT Raptor is ready to go home with its customers.
More than 1,500 orders received for the 5.4-liter F-150 SVT Raptor exceeds expectations and shows the extraordinary level of anticipation for this high-performance truck. In fact, initial dealer orders have the Dearborn Truck Plant building Raptors at maximum capacity, reflecting the strong demand for the first-ever factory high-speed off-road truck.
Color popularity is decidedly in favor of Raptor-exclusive Molten Orange Metallic Tri-Coat, and Tuxedo Black, with each color representing 40 percent of orders. Customers also want their off-road truck complete with lots of options. Orders reflect consumers’ appetite for technology with:
More than 80 percent ordered with Luxury Package, which includes heated seats, 10-speaker Sony® Audio system and dual zone temperature control
55 percent with Navigation, Sony Audio and SIRIUS Travel Link™
60 percent with Exterior Graphics Package
70 percent with power moonroof
Orders for Raptor have come from all across the United States, with 94 percent coming from males with a median age of 39. A survey of customers placing retail orders shows that:
16 percent purchased F-150 SVT Raptor as a collectible
31 percent purchased F-150 SVT Raptor for off-roading
19 percent purchased F-150 SVT Raptor for towing and hauling
The very first 5.4-liter F-150 SVT Raptor was sold last year at Barrett-Jackson for $130,000, and now trucks are arriving at dealerships. The first F-150 SVT Raptor retail sale was recorded as going to an off-road enthusiast in Sterling Heights, Mich. The owner of the new Raptor actually had to walk the last two miles to the Suburban Ford dealership to pick it up after getting a flat tire on his bike. And he isn’t wasting any time – the off-roader has already hit the sand dunes in northern Michigan with his new Raptor.
Fully loaded Web page lures in visitorsWhen customers want to learn more about F-150 SVT Raptor, they know where to go – http://www.fordvehicles.com/f150raptor?glbcmp=fordnews-announcementsfordvehicles – which focuses on everything Raptor. After launching in March, the Web page has tallied more than 300,000 visitors through June. Since the site first came to life, visitors haven’t stopped checking it out – on average, 75,000 potential customers continue to visit each month.
More than half of all visits last more than five minutes, with plenty of videos, images and information available to give potential customers the latest on F-150 SVT Raptor. In fact, the videos have been viewed nearly 400,000 times and the video completion rate is at or above that of other very successful vehicle launches.
Links are provided to other off-road sites and nearly 20,000 visitors have entered a contest to win a ride in an actual off-road desert race. Whether consumers are watching the F-150 SVT Raptor R race across the Baja Peninsula or listening to what Linsey Weenk, driver of Ford’s “Blue Thunder” monster truck, has to say about F-150 SVT Raptor, they can’t get enough. Unique applications on the Web page, like a 360-degree view of Raptor flying through the air, also give visitors a thorough perspective of the truck and allow them to get a closer look at the features that make it such a highly capable off-road vehicle. By clicking over Raptor components, such as the FOX Racing Shox internal bypass shocks, massive skid plates, unique design cues and wheels and tires, visitors can learn more about what gives this truck a competitive edge.
Another high-interest Web page element is the “Build a Raptor” feature, where visitors can select the color and options to create a truck with the content they desire. Almost half of all visitors have gone into the page, with 97 percent finishing it. Customers are encouraged to take the downloadable spec sheet to dealers to order their own truck. To get Raptors in the hands of off-road racing enthusiasts, Ford is prioritizing production scheduling of those orders.
A little something from the expertsCustomers know that the F-150 has legendary Built Ford Tough durability and toughness, but some might not be familiar with proper off-roading techniques. Or they might not realize how and why the F-150 SVT Raptor does so well in all off-road environments, not just the desert. A series of videos will be added to the F-150 SVT Raptor Web page that will provide customers with everything they want to know about this one-of-a-kind truck.
Featuring NASCAR driver Greg Biffle, off-road racing legend Rob MacCachren and SVT Chief Nameplate Engineer Jamal Hameedi, the Webisodes will give consumers an even closer look inside the SVT performance truck so they’ll know all the ins-and-outs.
Building momentumThe all-new 2010 Ford F-150 SVT Raptor has been touring the country, giving enthusiasts a taste of what it’s like behind the wheel. Stops at auto shows, NASCAR races, Monster Truck events, Barrett-Jackson auctions and off-road races have exposed more than 10 million enthusiasts to Raptor. Some events include the unique opportunity for a high-speed ride in the Raptor with a professional driver, with more than 1,000 rides given.
QUOTES:
“Nobody has ever done a product like this, so people are really excited. This is the ultimate expression of “Built Ford Tough.” They’re anxious to get this truck in their driveway and then take it off-roading on weekends. Customers appreciate the authenticity of the F-150 SVT Raptor and realize the value for money, given the capabilities of this truck. The initial response for the 5.4-liter engine is fantastic, and there’s even more demand for the upcoming 6.2-liter engine.”
– Mark Grueber,F-150 marketing manager
“People want to see the F-150 SVT Raptor in action, and they want to know everything about the truck. Raptor’s Web page provides that and the numbers are impressive – it shows a need for as much Raptor content as we can throw at them.”
– Brian Bell,F-150 consumer marketing manager
###
About Ford Motor CompanyFord Motor Company, a global automotive industry leader based in Dearborn, Mich., manufactures or distributes automobiles across six continents. With about 205,000 employees and about 90 plants worldwide, the company's automotive brands include Ford, Lincoln, Mercury and Volvo. The company provides financial services through Ford Motor Credit Company. For more information regarding Ford's products, please visit www.ford.com.
How Diesel Engines Work
One of the most popular HowStuffWorks articles is How Car Engines Work, which explains the basic principles behind internal combustion, discusses the four-stroke cycle and talks about all of the subsystems that help your car's engine to do its job. For a long time after we published that article, one of the most common questions asked (and one of the most frequent suggestions made in the suggestion box) was, "What is the difference between a gasoline and a diesel engine?"
Diesel's story actually begins with the invention of the gasoline engine. Nikolaus August Otto had invented and patented the gasoline engine by 1876. This invention used the four-stroke combustion principle, also known as the "Otto Cycle," and it's the basic premise for most car engines today. In its early stage, the gasoline engine wasn't very efficient, and other major methods of transportation such as the steam engine fared poorly as well. Only about 10 percent of the fuel used in these types of engines actually moved a vehicle. The rest of the fuel simply produced useless heat.
Diesel's story actually begins with the invention of the gasoline engine. Nikolaus August Otto had invented and patented the gasoline engine by 1876. This invention used the four-stroke combustion principle, also known as the "Otto Cycle," and it's the basic premise for most car engines today. In its early stage, the gasoline engine wasn't very efficient, and other major methods of transportation such as the steam engine fared poorly as well. Only about 10 percent of the fuel used in these types of engines actually moved a vehicle. The rest of the fuel simply produced useless heat.
In 1878, Rudolf Diesel was attending the Polytechnic High School of Germany (the equivalent of an engineering college) when he learned about the low efficiency of gasoline and steam engines. This disturbing information inspired him to create an engine with a higher efficiency, and he devoted much of his time to developing a "Combustion Power Engine." By 1892 Diesel had obtained a patent for what we now call the diesel engine.
Diesel Engine Image Gallery
2008 HowStuffWorksThe 4.5-liter V-8 Duramax improves fuel efficiency by 25 percent when compared with gasoline engines, while reducing pollutants and emissions. See more diesel engine pictures.
Diesel Engine Image Gallery
2008 HowStuffWorksThe 4.5-liter V-8 Duramax improves fuel efficiency by 25 percent when compared with gasoline engines, while reducing pollutants and emissions. See more diesel engine pictures.
How Diesel Engines Work
One of the most popular HowStuffWorks articles is How Car Engines Work, which explains the basic principles behind internal combustion, discusses the four-stroke cycle and talks about all of the subsystems that help your car's engine to do its job. For a long time after we published that article, one of the most common questions asked (and one of the most frequent suggestions made in the suggestion box) was, "What is the difference between a gasoline and a diesel engine?"
Diesel's story actually begins with the invention of the gasoline engine. Nikolaus August Otto had invented and patented the gasoline engine by 1876. This invention used the four-stroke combustion principle, also known as the "Otto Cycle," and it's the basic premise for most car engines today. In its early stage, the gasoline engine wasn't very efficient, and other major methods of transportation such as the steam engine fared poorly as well. Only about 10 percent of the fuel used in these types of engines actually moved a vehicle. The rest of the fuel simply produced useless heat.
In 1878, Rudolf Diesel was attending the Polytechnic High School of Germany (the equivalent of an engineering college) when he learned about the low efficiency of gasoline and steam engines. This disturbing information inspired him to create an engine with a higher efficiency, and he devoted much of his time to developing a "Combustion Power Engine." By 1892 Diesel had obtained a patent for what we now call the diesel engine.
Diesel Engine Image Gallery
2008 HowStuffWorksThe 4.5-liter V-8 Duramax improves fuel efficiency by 25 percent when compared with gasoline engines, while reducing pollutants and emissions. See more diesel engine pictures.
Diesel's story actually begins with the invention of the gasoline engine. Nikolaus August Otto had invented and patented the gasoline engine by 1876. This invention used the four-stroke combustion principle, also known as the "Otto Cycle," and it's the basic premise for most car engines today. In its early stage, the gasoline engine wasn't very efficient, and other major methods of transportation such as the steam engine fared poorly as well. Only about 10 percent of the fuel used in these types of engines actually moved a vehicle. The rest of the fuel simply produced useless heat.
In 1878, Rudolf Diesel was attending the Polytechnic High School of Germany (the equivalent of an engineering college) when he learned about the low efficiency of gasoline and steam engines. This disturbing information inspired him to create an engine with a higher efficiency, and he devoted much of his time to developing a "Combustion Power Engine." By 1892 Diesel had obtained a patent for what we now call the diesel engine.
Diesel Engine Image Gallery
2008 HowStuffWorksThe 4.5-liter V-8 Duramax improves fuel efficiency by 25 percent when compared with gasoline engines, while reducing pollutants and emissions. See more diesel engine pictures.
FORD FURTHER INCREASES VEHICLE PRODUCTION AS CUSTOMERS DEMAND MORE FUEL-EFFICIENT VEHICLES
Ford is increasing North American production by another 10,000 units to 495,000 units in the third quarter as it builds more fuel-efficient vehicles to meet “Cash for Clunkers” demand. Ford’s planned third quarter production now exceeds year-ago production levels by 18 percent
Ford, the UAW and suppliers are working together to ramp up production of the Escape small utility vehicle at Kansas City (Mo.) Assembly Plant and the Focus compact car at Wayne (Mich.) Assembly Plant through additional production shifts and increased overtime
Ford plans to produce 570,000 vehicles in the fourth quarter, a 33 percent increase versus year-ago levels and 15 percent above planned third quarter 2009 levels. The increase represents higher production across a range of cars, crossovers and trucks
After gaining U.S. market share in nine of the past 10 months and posting a year-over-year sales increase in July, Ford is off to a fast start in August due to continued strong demand for popular new products and the extended “Cash for Clunkers” program
DEARBORN, Mich., Aug. 13, 2009 – Ford Motor Company today announced it is increasing North American production in the third and fourth quarters to respond to growing demand for new Ford products and to ensure dealers are well stocked with fuel-efficient vehicles eligible for the “Cash for Clunkers” program.
Ford is increasing third quarter production by another 10,000 units to 495,000 units primarily to build additional Escape small utility vehicles and Focus small cars, the two most popular Ford vehicles under the federal government’s “Cash for Clunkers” program. Ford’s planned third quarter production is now 18 percent above third quarter 2008 production levels.
Ford also announced plans to produce 570,000 vehicles in the fourth quarter, 33 percent higher than year-ago levels and 15 percent above the third quarter production plan. The increase represents higher production across a range of cars, crossovers and trucks.
“Under the ‘Cash for Clunkers’ program, the Ford Escape and Focus are flying off dealer lots, and we’re doing all we can to ensure our dealers are well stocked with the fuel-efficient vehicles that customers really want,” said Mark Fields, Ford’s president of The Americas. “We also are planning a significant increase in fourth quarter production compared with last year, continuing to match production to the real demand. We’ll need this additional production as even more people are drawn to our high-quality, fuel-efficient lineup, including our newest entries such as the Ford Taurus and Lincoln MKT.”
Ford is working closely with the UAW and its suppliers to ramp up production of the Escape and Focus. At the Kansas City (Mo.) Assembly Plant, for example, employees agreed to work Friday and Saturday, Aug. 21-22, during what was a planned shutdown week. In August and September, Ford will build approximately 3,500 additional Escapes.
At Wayne (Mich.) Assembly Plant, Ford is increasing Focus production by more than 6,000 units in the third quarter through increased overtime Monday through Friday and adding Saturday production shifts.
“This is a team effort with the UAW and our suppliers to meet the demand for fuel-efficient vehicles,” said Joe Hinrichs, Ford group vice president, Global Manufacturing and Labor Affairs. “We asked our union partners to pull out all the stops – overtime, Saturday shifts, working during the shutdown – and they have delivered.”
The effort to meet “Cash for Clunkers” demand has required close coordination among Ford’s sales and marketing, purchasing, manufacturing and material planning and logistics divisions. While increasing production, Ford also is reprioritizing vehicle shipments to ensure that vehicles in high demand, such as the Focus, Escape and Fusion, arrive at dealerships quickly.
“Our carriers have been instructed to load Focus, Escapes and Fusions first,” said Ken Czubay, Ford’s vice president of U.S. Marketing, Sales and Service. “We want to ensure that dealers have an uninterrupted flow of product, because in many cases, they are selling them as soon as they arrive on the lot.”
The fourth quarter production plan represents an increase of 75,000 vehicles versus the third quarter. The increase, which includes several Ford cars, crossovers and trucks, will help Ford rebuild inventories of key products.
“As we gain momentum with strong new products – with top fuel economy, quality, technology and safety – we are in a position to increase our production and deliver profitable growth over time,” Fields said.
###
About Ford Motor CompanyFord Motor Company, a global automotive industry leader based in Dearborn, Mich., manufactures or distributes automobiles across six continents. With about 205,000 employees and about 90 plants worldwide, the company’s automotive brands include Ford, Lincoln, Mercury and Volvo. The company provides financial services through Ford Motor Credit Company. For more information regarding Ford's products, please visit www.ford.com.
Ford, the UAW and suppliers are working together to ramp up production of the Escape small utility vehicle at Kansas City (Mo.) Assembly Plant and the Focus compact car at Wayne (Mich.) Assembly Plant through additional production shifts and increased overtime
Ford plans to produce 570,000 vehicles in the fourth quarter, a 33 percent increase versus year-ago levels and 15 percent above planned third quarter 2009 levels. The increase represents higher production across a range of cars, crossovers and trucks
After gaining U.S. market share in nine of the past 10 months and posting a year-over-year sales increase in July, Ford is off to a fast start in August due to continued strong demand for popular new products and the extended “Cash for Clunkers” program
DEARBORN, Mich., Aug. 13, 2009 – Ford Motor Company today announced it is increasing North American production in the third and fourth quarters to respond to growing demand for new Ford products and to ensure dealers are well stocked with fuel-efficient vehicles eligible for the “Cash for Clunkers” program.
Ford is increasing third quarter production by another 10,000 units to 495,000 units primarily to build additional Escape small utility vehicles and Focus small cars, the two most popular Ford vehicles under the federal government’s “Cash for Clunkers” program. Ford’s planned third quarter production is now 18 percent above third quarter 2008 production levels.
Ford also announced plans to produce 570,000 vehicles in the fourth quarter, 33 percent higher than year-ago levels and 15 percent above the third quarter production plan. The increase represents higher production across a range of cars, crossovers and trucks.
“Under the ‘Cash for Clunkers’ program, the Ford Escape and Focus are flying off dealer lots, and we’re doing all we can to ensure our dealers are well stocked with the fuel-efficient vehicles that customers really want,” said Mark Fields, Ford’s president of The Americas. “We also are planning a significant increase in fourth quarter production compared with last year, continuing to match production to the real demand. We’ll need this additional production as even more people are drawn to our high-quality, fuel-efficient lineup, including our newest entries such as the Ford Taurus and Lincoln MKT.”
Ford is working closely with the UAW and its suppliers to ramp up production of the Escape and Focus. At the Kansas City (Mo.) Assembly Plant, for example, employees agreed to work Friday and Saturday, Aug. 21-22, during what was a planned shutdown week. In August and September, Ford will build approximately 3,500 additional Escapes.
At Wayne (Mich.) Assembly Plant, Ford is increasing Focus production by more than 6,000 units in the third quarter through increased overtime Monday through Friday and adding Saturday production shifts.
“This is a team effort with the UAW and our suppliers to meet the demand for fuel-efficient vehicles,” said Joe Hinrichs, Ford group vice president, Global Manufacturing and Labor Affairs. “We asked our union partners to pull out all the stops – overtime, Saturday shifts, working during the shutdown – and they have delivered.”
The effort to meet “Cash for Clunkers” demand has required close coordination among Ford’s sales and marketing, purchasing, manufacturing and material planning and logistics divisions. While increasing production, Ford also is reprioritizing vehicle shipments to ensure that vehicles in high demand, such as the Focus, Escape and Fusion, arrive at dealerships quickly.
“Our carriers have been instructed to load Focus, Escapes and Fusions first,” said Ken Czubay, Ford’s vice president of U.S. Marketing, Sales and Service. “We want to ensure that dealers have an uninterrupted flow of product, because in many cases, they are selling them as soon as they arrive on the lot.”
The fourth quarter production plan represents an increase of 75,000 vehicles versus the third quarter. The increase, which includes several Ford cars, crossovers and trucks, will help Ford rebuild inventories of key products.
“As we gain momentum with strong new products – with top fuel economy, quality, technology and safety – we are in a position to increase our production and deliver profitable growth over time,” Fields said.
###
About Ford Motor CompanyFord Motor Company, a global automotive industry leader based in Dearborn, Mich., manufactures or distributes automobiles across six continents. With about 205,000 employees and about 90 plants worldwide, the company’s automotive brands include Ford, Lincoln, Mercury and Volvo. The company provides financial services through Ford Motor Credit Company. For more information regarding Ford's products, please visit www.ford.com.
gasoline
Gasoline
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"Petrol" redirects here. For other uses, see Petrol (disambiguation).
For other uses, see Gasoline (disambiguation).
This article needs additional citations for verification.Please help improve this article by adding reliable references. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (April 2009)
A gasoline can from the Midwest Can Company
Gasoline or petrol is a petroleum-derived liquid mixture, primarily used as fuel in internal combustion engines. It also is used as a powerful solvent much like acetone.
It consists mostly of aliphatic hydrocarbons, enhanced with iso-octane or the aromatic hydrocarbons toluene and benzene to increase its octane rating. Small quantities of various additives are common, for purposes such as tuning engine performance or reducing harmful exhaust emissions. Some mixtures also contain significant quantities of ethanol as a partial alternative fuel.
Most current or former Commonwealth countries use the term petrol, abbreviated from petroleum spirit. In North America, the word gasoline is the common term, where it is often shortened in colloquial usage to simply gas. It is not a genuinely gaseous fuel (unlike, for example, liquefied petroleum gas, which is stored under pressure as a liquid, but returned to a gaseous state before combustion). The term petrogasoline is also used.
In aviation, mogas, short for motor gasoline, is used to distinguish automobile fuel from aviation gasoline, or avgas. In British English, gasoline can refer to a different petroleum derivative historically used in lamps, but this usage is relatively uncommon.
Contents[hide]
1 Early uses
2 Etymology
3 Chemical analysis and production
3.1 Density
3.2 Volatility
3.3 Octane rating
3.4 World War II and octane ratings
4 Energy content
5 Additives
5.1 Lead
5.2 MMT
5.3 Ethanol
5.4 Dye
5.5 Oxygenate blending
6 Health concerns
7 Usage and pricing
7.1 United States
8 Stability
9 Other fuels
10 Bioconversion and biogasoline
11 See also
12 Notes
13 References
14 External links
//
Early uses
This section does not cite any references or sources. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (April 2009)
Gasoline Pumps, Norway
Before gasoline was used as fuel for engines, it was sold in small bottles as a treatment against lice and their eggs. This treatment method is no longer common because of the inherent fire hazard and the risk of dermatitis.[citation needed]
In the United States, gasoline was also sold as a cleaning fluid to remove grease stains from clothing. Before dedicated filling stations were established, early motorists bought gasoline in cans to fill their tanks.
The name gasoline is similar to that of other petroleum products of the day, most notably petroleum jelly, a highly purified heavy distillate, which was branded Vaseline. The trademark Gasoline was never registered, and eventually became generic.
Gasoline was also used in kitchen ranges and for lighting, and is still available in a purified form, known as camping fuel, white gas or Coleman fuel, for use in lanterns and portable stoves.
During the Franco-Prussian War (1870–71), pétrole was stockpiled in Paris for use against a possible German-Prussian attack on the city. Later in 1871, during the revolutionary Paris Commune, rumours spread around the city of pétroleuses, women using bottles of petrol to commit arson against city buildings.
Etymology
The word "petrol" was first used in reference to the refined substance in 1892 (it was previously used to refer to unrefined petroleum), and was registered as a trade name by British wholesaler Carless, Capel & Leonard at the suggestion of Frederick Richard Simms.[1]
Carless's competitors used the term "motor spirit" until the 1930s, but never officially registered it as a trademark.[2][3]
In many countries gasoline is called Benzine or some variant. The usage derives from the chemical benzene, not from Bertha Benz, who used chemists' shops to purchase the gasoline, a detergent called Ligroin at that time, for her famous drive from Mannheim to Pforzheim and back in 1888, that is commemorated by Bertha Benz Memorial Route since 2008[4].
Chemical analysis and production
Oil refineries produce gasoline
A United States pumpjack
An oil rig in the Gulf of Mexico
Gasoline is produced in oil refineries. Material that is separated from crude oil via distillation, called virgin or straight-run gasoline, does not meet the required specifications for modern engines (in particular octane rating; see below), but will form part of the blend.
The bulk of a typical gasoline consists of hydrocarbons with between 4 and 12 carbon atoms per molecule.[5]
Many of these hydrocarbons are considered hazardous substances and are regulated in the United States by Occupational Safety and Health Administration. The Material Safety Data Sheet for unleaded gasoline shows at least fifteen hazardous chemicals occurring in various amounts. These include benzene (up to 5% by volume), toluene (up to 35% by volume), naphthalene (up to 1% by volume), trimethylbenzene (up to 7% by volume), MTBE (up to 18% by volume) and about ten others.[6] However, MTBE is no longer an additive to gasoline in some States.
The various refinery streams blended together to make gasoline all have different characteristics. Some important streams are:
Reformate, produced in a catalytic reformer with a high octane rating and high aromatic content, and very low olefins (alkenes).
Cat Cracked Gasoline or Cat Cracked Naphtha, produced from a catalytic cracker, with a moderate octane rating, high olefins (alkene) content, and moderate aromatics level. Here, "cat" is short for "catalytic".
Hydrocrackate (Heavy, Mid, and Light), produced from a hydrocracker, with medium to low octane rating and moderate aromatic levels.
Virgin or Straight-run Naphtha (has many names), directly from crude oil with low octane rating, low aromatics (depending on the crude oil), some naphthenes (cycloalkanes) and no olefins (alkenes).
Alkylate, produced in an alkylation unit, with a high octane rating and which is pure paraffin (alkane), mainly branched chains.
Isomerate (various names) which is obtained by isomerising the pentane and hexane[citation needed] in light virgin naphthas to yield their higher octane isomers.
(The terms used here are not always the correct chemical terms. They are the jargon normally used in the oil industry. The exact terminology for these streams varies by refinery and by country.)
Overall a typical gasoline is predominantly a mixture of paraffins (alkanes), naphthenes (cycloalkanes), and olefins (alkenes). The exact ratios can depend on
the oil refinery that makes the gasoline, as not all refineries have the same set of processing units.
the crude oil feed used by the refinery.
the grade of gasoline, in particular the octane rating.
Currently many countries set tight limits on gasoline aromatics in general, benzene in particular, and olefin (alkene) content. This is increasing the demand for high octane pure paraffin (alkane) components, such as alkylate, and is forcing refineries to add processing units to reduce the benzene content.
Gasoline can also contain some other organic compounds: such as organic ethers (deliberately added), plus small levels of contaminants, in particular sulfur compounds such as disulfides and thiophenes. Some contaminants, in particular thiols and hydrogen sulfide, must be removed because they cause corrosion in engines. Sulfur compounds are usually removed by hydrotreating, yielding hydrogen sulfide which can then be transformed into elemental sulfur via the Claus process.
Density
The specific density of gasoline ranges from 0.67–0.77, higher densities having a greater volume of aromatics.[7] (0.026 lb/in3; 719.7 kg/m3; 6.073 lb/US gal; 7.29 lb/imp gal). Gasoline floats on water, so water cannot generally be used to extinguish a gasoline fire. Because of its specific density, and relative incompressibility even at extreme pressure, gasoline was chosen as the float fluid in the Bathyscaphe Trieste, the craft which reached a record-breaking depth of 10,900 metres (35,761 ft) in the deepest part of any ocean on Earth.
Volatility
A plastic container for storing gasoline used in Germany
Gasoline is more volatile than diesel oil, Jet-A or kerosene, not only because of the base constituents, but because of the additives that are put into it. The final control of volatility is often achieved by blending with butane. The Reid Vapor Pressure (RVP) test is used to measure the volatility of gasoline. The desired volatility depends on the ambient temperature: in hotter climates, gasoline components of higher molecular weight and thus lower volatility are used. In cold climates, too little volatility results in cars failing to start. In hot climates, excessive volatility results in what is known as "vapor lock" where combustion fails to occur, because the liquid fuel has changed to a gaseous fuel in the fuel lines, rendering the fuel pump ineffective and starving the engine of fuel. (This effect mainly applies to engine-mounted fuel pumps; a fuel pump located in the fuel tank, as in most modern automobiles, is much more resistant to vapor lock.)
In the United States, volatility is regulated in large urban centers to reduce the emission of unburned hydrocarbons. In large cities, so-called reformulated gasoline that is less prone to evaporation, among other properties, is required. In Australia summer petrol volatility limits are set by State Governments and vary between capital cities. Most countries simply have a summer, winter and perhaps intermediate limit.
Volatility standards may be relaxed (allowing more gasoline components into the atmosphere) during emergency anticipated gasoline shortages. For example, on 31 August 2005 in response to Hurricane Katrina, the United States permitted the sale of non-reformulated gasoline in some urban areas, which effectively permitted an early switch from summer to winter-grade gasoline. As mandated by EPA administrator Stephen L. Johnson, this "fuel waiver" was made effective through 15 September 2005.[8] Though relaxed volatility standards may increase the atmospheric concentration of volatile organic compounds in warm weather, higher volatility gasoline effectively increases a nation's gasoline supply because the amount of butane in the gasoline pool is allowed to increase.[citation needed]
Besides lowering the volatility of the fuel, other means of controlling the emission of unburned hydrocarbons, for environmental concerns, exist and are exercised. All vehicles sold in the United States (since at least the 1980s, probably the 1970s or earlier) are required to have a fuel evaporative control system (called an EVAP system in automotive jargon) which collects expanding fuel vapor from the fuel tank in a charcoal-lined canister while the engine is stopped and then releases the collected vapors (through a "purge valve") into the engine intake for burning when the engine is running (usually only after it has reached normal operating temperature.) The fuel evaporative control system is also required to include a gasketed filling cap which seals the fueling inlet to prevent vapors from escaping directly from the tank through it. Modern vehicles with OBD-II emissions control systems will turn on the MIL (Malfunction Indicator Light, a.k.a. "check engine" light) if it is detected that the gas cap is missing or loose and so not sealing. (The general purpose of this light is to indicate when any of the emissions controls are not working properly.)
Octane rating
For more details on this topic, see octane rating.
It has been suggested that octane rating be merged into this article or section. (Discuss)
An important characteristic of gasoline is its octane rating, which is a measure of how resistant gasoline is to the abnormal combustion phenomenon known as pre-detonation (also known as knocking, pinging, spark knock, and other names). Deflagration is the normal type of combustion. Octane rating is measured relative to a mixture of 2,2,4-trimethylpentane (an isomer of octane) and n-heptane. There are a number of different conventions for expressing the octane rating; therefore, the same fuel may be labeled with a different number, depending upon the system used.
The octane rating became important in the search for higher output powers from aircraft engines in the late 1930s and the 1940s as it allowed higher compression ratios to be used.
[edit] World War II and octane ratings
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During World War II, Germany received much of its oil from Romania. From 2.8 million barrels (450×10^3 m3) in 1938, Romania’s exports to Germany increased to 13 million barrels (2.1×10^6 m3) by 1941, a level that was essentially maintained through 1942 and 1943, before dropping by half, due to Allied bombing and mining of the Danube. Although these exports were almost half of Romania’s total production, they were considerably less than what the Germans expected. Even with the addition of the Romanian deliveries, overland oil imports after 1939 could not make up for the loss of overseas shipments. In order to become less dependent on outside sources, the Germans undertook a sizable expansion program of their own meager domestic oil pumping. After 1938, the Austrian oil fields were made available, and the expansion of Nazi crude oil output was chiefly concentrated there. Primarily as a result of this expansion, the Reich's domestic output of crude oil increased from approximately 3.8 million barrels (600×10^3 m3) in 1938 to almost 12 million barrels (1.9×10^6 m3) in 1944. Even this was not enough.
Instead, Germany had developed a synthetic fuel capacity that was intended to replace imported or captured oil. Fuels were generated from coal, using either the Bergius process or the Fischer-Tropsch process. Between 1938 and 1943, synthetic fuel output underwent a respectable growth from 10 to 36 million barrels (1.6–5.7×106 m3). The percentage of synthetic fuels compared with the yield from all sources grew from 22% to more than 50% by 1943. The total oil supplies available from all sources for the same period rose from 45 million barrels (7.2×10^6 m3) in 1938 to 71 million barrels (11.3×10^6 m3) in 1943.
By the early 1930s, automobile gasoline had an octane rating of 40 and aviation gasoline a rating of 75-80. Aviation gasoline with such high octane numbers could only be refined through a process of distillation of high-grade petroleum. Germany’s domestic oil was not of this quality. Only the additive tetra-ethyl lead could raise the octane to a maximum of 87. The license for the production of this additive was acquired in 1935 from the American holder of the patents, but without high-grade Romanian oil even this additive was not very effective. 100 octane fuel, designated either 'C-2' (natural) or 'C-3' (synthethic) was introduced in late 1939 with the Daimler-Benz DB 601N engine, used in certain of the Luftwaffe`s Bf 109E and Bf 109F single-engined fighters, Bf 110C twin-engined fighters, and several bomber types. Some later combat types, most notably the BMW 801D-powered Fw 190A, F and G series, and later war Bf 109G and K models, used C-3 as well. The nominally 87 octane aviation fuel designated 'B-4' was produced in parallel during the war.
In the United States the oil was not "as good", and the oil industry had to invest heavily in various expensive boosting systems. This turned out to have benefits: the US industry started delivering fuels of increasing octane ratings by adding more of the boosting agents, and the infrastructure was in place for a post-war octane-agents additive industry. Good crude oil was no longer a factor during wartime, and by war's end American aviation fuel was commonly 130 octane, and 150 octane was available in limited quantities for fighters from the summer of 1944. This high octane could easily be used in existing engines to deliver much more power by increasing the pressure delivered by the superchargers.
In late 1942, the Germans increased the octane rating of their high-grade 'C-3' aviation fuel to 150 octane. The relative volumes of production of the two grades B-4 and C-3 cannot be accurately given, but in the last war years perhaps two-thirds of the total was C-3. Every effort was being made toward the end of the war to increase isoparaffin production; more isoparaffin meant more C-3 available for fighter plane use.
A common misconception exists concerning wartime fuel octane numbers. There are two octane numbers for each fuel, one for lean mix and one for rich mix, rich being greater. The misunderstanding that German fuels had a lower octane number (and thus a poorer quality) arose because the Germans quoted the lean mix octane number for their fuels while the Allies quoted the rich mix number. Standard German high-grade 'C-3' aviation fuel used in the later part of the war had lean/rich octane numbers of 100/130. The Germans listed this as a 100 octane fuel, the Allies as 130 octane.
After the war the US Navy sent a Technical Mission to Germany to interview German petrochemists and examine German fuel quality. Their report entitled “Technical Report 145-45 Manufacture of Aviation Gasoline in Germany” chemically analyzed the different fuels, and concluded that “Toward the end of the war the quality of fuel being used by the German fighter planes was quite similar to that being used by the Allies.”
Energy content
A plastic container used in the United States for storing gasoline.
Gasoline contains about 32.0 MJ/l (9.67 kWh/l, 132 MJ/US gal or 36.6 kWh/US gal). This is an average; gasoline blends differ, and therefore actual energy content varies from season to season and from batch to batch, by up to 4% more or less than the average, according to the US EPA. On average, about 19.5 US gallons (16.2 imp gal; 74 L) of gasoline are available from a 42-US-gallon (35 imp gal; 160 L) barrel of crude oil (about 46% by volume), varying due to quality of crude and grade of gasoline. The remaining residue comes off as products ranging from tar to naptha.[9]
Volumetric and mass energy density of some fuels compared with gasoline:[10]
Fuel type[clarification needed]
MJ/litre
MJ/kg
BTU/Imp gal
BTU/US gal
Research octanenumber (RON)
87 Octane Gasoline
32.0
44.4[11]
150,100
125,000
Min 91[clarification needed]
Autogas (LPG) (60% Propane + 40% Butane)
26.8
46
108
Ethanol
23.5
31.1[12]
101,600
84,600
129
Methanol
17.9
19.9
77,600
64,600
123
Butanol
29.2
36.6
91-99[clarification needed]
Gasohol (10% ethanol + 90% gasoline)
31.2
145,200
120,900
93/94[clarification needed]
Diesel(*)
38.6
45.4
166,600
138,700
25
Biodiesel
33.3-35.7 [13][clarification needed]
Aviation gasoline (high octane gasoline, not jet fuel)
33.5
46.8
144,400
120,200
Jet fuel (kerosene based)
35.1
43.8
151,242
125,935
Liquefied natural gas
25.3
55
109,000
90,800
Hydrogen
1-10[clarification needed]
121
130[14]
(*) Diesel fuel is not used in a gasoline engine, so its low octane rating is not an issue; the relevant metric for diesel engines is the cetane number
A high octane fuel such as Liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) has a lower energy content than lower octane gasoline, resulting in an overall lower power output at the regular compression ratio an engine ran at on gasoline. However, with an engine tuned to the use of LPG (i.e. via higher compression ratios such as 12:1 instead of 8:1), this lower power output can be overcome. This is because higher-octane fuels allow for a higher compression ratio - this means less space in a cylinder on its combustion stroke, hence a higher cylinder temperature which improves efficiency according to Carnot's theorem, along with fewer wasted hydrocarbons (therefore less pollution and wasted energy), bringing higher power levels coupled with less pollution overall because of the greater efficiency.
The main reason for the lower energy content (per litre) of LPG in comparison to gasoline is that it has a lower density. Energy content per kilogram is higher than for gasoline (higher hydrogen to carbon ratio). The weight-density of gasoline is about 740 kg/m³ (6.175 lb/US gal; 7.416 lb/imp gal).
Different countries have some variation in what RON (Research Octane Number) is standard for gasoline, or petrol. In the UK, ordinary regular unleaded petrol is 91 RON (not commonly available), premium unleaded petrol is always 95 RON, and super unleaded is usually 97-98 RON. However both Shell and BP produce fuel at 102 RON for cars with hi-performance engines, and the supermarket chain Tesco began in 2006 to sell super unleaded petrol rated at 99 RON. In the US, octane ratings in unleaded fuels can vary between 86-87 AKI (91-92 RON) for regular, through 89-90 AKI (94-95 RON) for mid-grade (European Premium), up to 90-94 AKI (95-99 RON) for premium (European Super).
Additives
Main article: Gasoline additive
Lead
The mixture known as gasoline, when used in high compression internal combustion engines, has a tendency to autoignite (detonation) causing a damaging "engine knocking" (also called "pinging") noise. Early research into this effect was led by A.H. Gibson and Harry Ricardo in England and Thomas Midgley and Thomas Boyd in the United States. The discovery that lead additives modified this behavior led to the widespread adoption of their use in the 1920s and therefore more powerful higher compression engines. The most popular additive was tetra-ethyl lead. However, with the discovery of the environmental and health damage caused by the lead, and the incompatibility of lead with catalytic converters found on virtually all newly sold US automobiles since 1975, this practice began to wane (encouraged by many governments introducing differential tax rates) in the 1980s. Most countries are phasing out leaded fuel; different additives have replaced the lead compounds. The most popular additives include aromatic hydrocarbons, ethers and alcohol (usually ethanol or methanol). In the US, where lead had been blended with gasoline (primarily to boost octane levels) since the early 1920s, standards to phase out leaded gasoline were first implemented in 1973 - due in great part to studies conducted by Philip J. Landrigan. In 1995, leaded fuel accounted for only 0.6% of total gasoline sales and less than 2,000 short tons (1,800 t) of lead per year. From 1 January 1996, the Clean Air Act banned the sale of leaded fuel for use in on-road vehicles. Possession and use of leaded gasoline in a regular on-road vehicle now carries a maximum $10,000 fine in the US. However, fuel containing lead may continue to be sold for off-road uses, including aircraft, racing cars, farm equipment, and marine engines.[15] The ban on leaded gasoline led to thousands of tons of lead not being released in the air by automobiles. Similar bans in other countries have resulted in lowering levels of lead in people's bloodstreams.[16][17]
A side effect of the lead additives was protection of the valve seats from erosion. Many classic cars' engines have needed modification to use lead-free fuels since leaded fuels became unavailable. However, "Lead substitute" products are also produced and can sometimes be found at auto parts stores. These were scientifically tested and some were approved by the Federation of British Historic Vehicle Clubs at the UK's Motor Industry Research Association (MIRA) in 1999.[18]
Gasoline, as delivered at the pump, also contains additives to reduce internal engine carbon buildups, improve combustion, and to allow easier starting in cold climates.
In some parts of South America, Asia, Eastern Europe and the Middle East, leaded gasoline is still in use. Leaded gasoline was phased out in sub-Saharan Africa effective 1 January 2006. A growing number of countries have drawn up plans to ban leaded gasoline in the near future. However, in Britain there is now a growing market for using Four Star leaded petrol in classic cars and motorcycles because of detonation and valve seat erosion. A sole petroleum wholesaler, the Bayford Group, is EU-licenced to distribute the leaded fuel and it is sold at select outlets around the UK. Not all counties are covered and the fuel costs approximately twice that of unleaded petrol.
MMT
Methylcyclopentadienyl manganese tricarbonyl (MMT) has been used for many years in Canada and recently in Australia to boost octane. It also helps old cars designed for leaded fuel run on unleaded fuel without need for additives to prevent valve problems.
US Federal sources state that MMT is suspected to be a powerful neurotoxin and respiratory toxin,[19] and a large Canadian study concluded that MMT impairs the effectiveness of automobile emission controls and increases pollution from motor vehicles.[20]
In 1977 use of MMT was banned in the US by the Clean Air Act until the Ethyl Corporation could prove that the additive would not lead to failure of new car emissions-control systems. As a result of this ruling, the Ethyl Corporation began a legal battle with the EPA, presenting evidence that MMT was harmless to automobile emissions-control systems. In 1995 the US Court of Appeals ruled that the EPA had exceeded its authority, and MMT became a legal fuel additive in the US. MMT is nowadays manufactured by the Afton Chemical Corporation division of Newmarket Corporation.[21]
Ethanol
In the United States, ethanol is sometimes added to gasoline but sold without an indication that it is a component. Chevron, 76, Shell, and several other brands market ethanol-gasoline blends.[citation needed]
In several states, ethanol is added by law to a minimum level which is currently 5.9%. Most fuel pumps display a sticker stating that the fuel may contain up to 10% ethanol, an intentional disparity which allows the minimum level to be raised over time without requiring modification of the literature/labelling. The bill which was being debated at the time the disclosure of the presence of ethanol in the fuel was mandated has recently passed. This law (Energy Policy Act of 2005) will require all auto fuel to contain at least 10% ethanol. Many call this fuel mix gasohol.
In the EU, 5% ethanol can be added within the common gasoline spec (EN 228). Discussions are ongoing to allow 10% blending of ethanol. Most countries (fuel distributors) today do not add so much ethanol.[citation needed] Most gasoline (petrol) sold in Sweden has 5% ethanol added.
In Brazil, the Brazilian National Agency of Petroleum, Natural Gas and Biofuels (ANP) requires that gasoline for automobile use has 23% of ethanol added to its composition.
Dye
Main article: Fuel dyes
In the United States the most commonly used aircraft gasoline, avgas, or aviation gas, is known as 100LL (100 octane, low lead) and is dyed blue. Red dye has been used for identifying untaxed (non-highway use) agricultural diesel. The UK uses red dye to differentiate between regular diesel fuel, (often referred to as DERV from Diesel-Engined Road Vehicle), which is undyed, and diesel intended for agricultural and construction vehicles like excavators and bulldozers. Red diesel is still occasionally used on HGVs which use a separate engine to power a loader crane. This is a declining practice however, as many loader cranes are powered directly by the tractor unit.
Oxygenate blending
Oxygenate blending adds oxygen to the fuel in oxygen-bearing compounds such as MTBE, ETBE and ethanol, and so reduces the amount of carbon monoxide and unburned fuel in the exhaust gas, thus reducing smog. In many areas throughout the US oxygenate blending is mandated by EPA regulations to reduce smog and other airborne polutants. For example, in Southern California, fuel must contain 2% oxygen by weight, resulting in a mixture of 5.6% ethanol in gasoline. The resulting fuel is often known as reformulated gasoline (RFG) or oxygenated gasoline. The federal requirement that RFG contain oxygen was dropped 6 May 2006 because the industry had developed VOC-controlled RFG that did not need additional oxygen.[22]
MTBE use is being phased out in some states due to issues with contamination of ground water. In some places, such as California, it is already banned. Ethanol and to a lesser extent the ethanol derived ETBE are a common replacements. Especially since ethanol derived from biomatter such as corn, sugar cane or grain is frequent, this will often be referred to as bio-ethanol. A common ethanol-gasoline mix of 10% ethanol mixed with gasoline is called gasohol or E10, and an ethanol-gasoline mix of 85% ethanol mixed with gasoline is called E85. The most extensive use of ethanol takes place in Brazil, where the ethanol is derived from sugarcane. In 2004, over 3.4 billion US gallons (2.8 billion imp gal/13 million m³) of ethanol was produced in the United States for fuel use, mostly from corn, and E85 is slowly becoming available in much of the United States. Unfortunately many of the relatively few stations vending E85 are not open to the general public.[23] The use of bioethanol, either directly or indirectly by conversion of such ethanol to bio-ETBE, is encouraged by the European Union Directive on the Promotion of the use of biofuels and other renewable fuels for transport. However since producing bio-ethanol from fermented sugars and starches involves distillation, ordinary people in much of Europe cannot legally ferment and distill their own bio-ethanol at present (unlike in the US where getting a BATF distillation permit has been easy since the 1973 oil crisis.)
Health concerns
Uncontrolled burning of gasoline produces large quantities of soot.
Many of the non-aliphatic hydrocarbons naturally present in gasoline (especially aromatic ones like benzene), as well as many anti-knocking additives, are carcinogenic. Because of this, any large-scale or ongoing leaks of gasoline pose a threat to the public's health and the environment, should the gasoline reach a public supply of drinking water. The chief risks of such leaks come not from vehicles, but from gasoline delivery truck accidents and leaks from storage tanks. Because of this risk, most (underground) storage tanks now have extensive measures in place to detect and prevent any such leaks, such as sacrificial anodes. Gasoline is rather volatile (meaning it readily evaporates), requiring that storage tanks on land and in vehicles be properly sealed. The high volatility also means that it will easily ignite in hot weather conditions, unlike diesel for example. Appropriate venting is needed to ensure the level of pressure is similar on the inside and outside. Gasoline also reacts dangerously with certain common chemicals.
Gasoline is also one of the sources of pollutant gases. Even gasoline which does not contain lead or sulfur compounds produces carbon dioxide, nitrogen oxides, and carbon monoxide in the exhaust of the engine which is running on it. Furthermore, unburnt gasoline and evaporation from the tank, when in the atmosphere, react in sunlight to produce photochemical smog. Addition of ethanol increases the volatility of gasoline.
Through misuse as an inhalant, gasoline also contributes to damage to health. Petrol sniffing is a common way of obtaining a high for many people and has become epidemic in some poorer communities and indigenous groups in America, Australia, Canada, New Zealand and some Pacific Islands.[24] In response, Opal fuel has been developed by the BP Kwinana Refinery in Australia, and contains only 5% aromatics (unlike the usual 25%) which inhibits the effects of inhalation.[25]
Like other alkanes, gasoline burns in the vapor phase and, coupled with its volatility, this makes leaks highly dangerous when sources of ignition are present. Many accidents involve gasoline being used in an attempt to light bonfires; rather than helping the material on the bonfire to burn, some of the gasoline vaporises quickly after being poured and mixes with the surrounding air, so when the fire is lit a moment later the vapor surrounding the bonfire instantly ignites in a large fireball, engulfing the unwary user. The vapor is also heavier than air and tends to collect in garage inspection pits.
Usage and pricing
Main articles: Gasoline usage and pricing, Global warming, and Peak oil
UK petrol prices
The US accounts for about 44% of the world’s gasoline consumption.[26] In 2003 The US consumed 476.474 gigalitres (1.25871×1011 US gal; 1.04810×1011 imp gal),[27] which equates to 1.3 gigalitres of gasoline each day (about 360 million US or 300 million imperial gallons). The US used about 510 billion litres (138 billion US gal/115 billion imp gal) of gasoline in 2006, of which 5.6% was mid-grade and 9.5% was premium grade.[28]
Western countries have among the highest usage rates per person.
Based on externalities, some countries, e.g. in Europe and Japan, impose heavy fuel taxes on fuels such as gasoline.
United States
Because a greater proportion of the price of gasoline in the United States is due to the cost of oil, rather than taxes, the price of the retail product is subject to greater fluctuations (vs. outside the US) when calculated as a percentage of cost-per-unit, but is actually less variable in absolute terms.
Unlike other goods in the United States, gasoline is sold with tax included. Taxes are added by federal, state and local governments. As of 2009, the federal tax is 18.4¢ per gallon for gasoline and 24.4¢ per gallon for diesel (excluding Red diesel). [29] Among states, the highest gasoline tax rates, including the federal taxes as of 2005, are New York (62.9¢/gal), Hawaii (60.1¢/gal), & California (60¢/gal). [30] However, many states' taxes are a percentage and thus vary in amount depending on the cost of the gasoline.
Stability
When gasoline is left for a period of time, gums and varnishes may build up and precipitate in the gasoline, causing "stale fuel". This will cause gums to build up in the fuel tank, lines, and carburetor or fuel injection components making it harder to start the engine. Motor gasoline may be stored up to 60 days in an approved container. If it is to be stored for a longer period of time, a fuel stabilizer may be used. This will extend the life of the fuel to about 1–2 years, and keep it fresh for the next uses. Fuel stabilizer is commonly used for small engines such as lawnmower and tractor engines to promote quicker and more reliable starting. Users have been advised to keep gasoline containers and tanks more than half full and properly capped to reduce air exposure, to avoid storage at high temperatures,[31] to run an engine for ten minutes to circulate the stabilizer through all components prior to storage, and to run the engine at intervals to purge stale fuel from the carburetor.[32]
Gummy, sticky resin deposits result from oxidative degradation of gasoline. This degradation can be prevented through the use of antioxidants such as phenylenediamines, alkylenediamines (diethylenetriamine, triethylenetetramine, etc), and alkylamines (diethylamine, tributylamine, ethylamine). Other useful additives include gum inhibitors such as N-substituted alkylaminophenols and colour stabilizers such as N-(2-aminoethyl)piperazine, N,N-diethylhydroxylamine, and triethylenetetramine.[33]
Improvements in refinery techniques have generally reduced the reliance on the catalytically or thermally cracked stocks most susceptible to oxidation.[34] Gasoline containing acidic contaminants such as naphthenic acids can be addressed with additives including strongly basic organo-amines such as N,N-diethylhydroxylamine, preventing metal corrosion and breakdown of other antioxidant additives due to acidity. Hydrocarbons with a bromine number of 10 or above can be protected with the combination of unhindered or partially hindered phenols and oil soluble strong amine bases such as monoethanolamine, N-(2-aminoethyl)piperazine, cyclohexylamine, 1,3-cyclohexane-bis(methylamine), 2,5-dimethylaniline, 2,6-dimethylaniline, diethylenetriamine and triethylenetetramine.[33]
"Stale" gasoline can be detected by a colorimetric enzymatic test for organic peroxides produced by oxidation of the gasoline.[35]
Other fuels
Main articles: Alternative fuel and Biofuel
Many of these alternatives are less damaging to the environment than gasoline, but the first generation biofuels are still not 100 percent clean.
Biofuels:
Biodiesel, for diesel engines.
Refined vegetable oil
Fischer-Tropsch diesel from biomass
Biobutanol, for gasoline engines.
Bioethanol.
Biogasoline.
Compressed air
Hydrogen fuel
Electricity
Fossil fuels:
CNG (Compressed Natural Gas)
Petrodiesel
Bioconversion and biogasoline
Main article: Biogasoline
XcelPlus Global Holdings working in conjunction with Maverick BioFuels developed the technology in which a fuel compatible with internal combustion gasoline engines is derived from natural renewable oils like soybean, other vegetable oils and biodiesel.
Companies such as Sapphire Energy are developing a means to "grow" gasoline, that is, produce it directly from living organisms (i.e. algae). Biogasoline has the advantage of not needing any change in vehicle or distribution infrastructure.
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"Petrol" redirects here. For other uses, see Petrol (disambiguation).
For other uses, see Gasoline (disambiguation).
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A gasoline can from the Midwest Can Company
Gasoline or petrol is a petroleum-derived liquid mixture, primarily used as fuel in internal combustion engines. It also is used as a powerful solvent much like acetone.
It consists mostly of aliphatic hydrocarbons, enhanced with iso-octane or the aromatic hydrocarbons toluene and benzene to increase its octane rating. Small quantities of various additives are common, for purposes such as tuning engine performance or reducing harmful exhaust emissions. Some mixtures also contain significant quantities of ethanol as a partial alternative fuel.
Most current or former Commonwealth countries use the term petrol, abbreviated from petroleum spirit. In North America, the word gasoline is the common term, where it is often shortened in colloquial usage to simply gas. It is not a genuinely gaseous fuel (unlike, for example, liquefied petroleum gas, which is stored under pressure as a liquid, but returned to a gaseous state before combustion). The term petrogasoline is also used.
In aviation, mogas, short for motor gasoline, is used to distinguish automobile fuel from aviation gasoline, or avgas. In British English, gasoline can refer to a different petroleum derivative historically used in lamps, but this usage is relatively uncommon.
Contents[hide]
1 Early uses
2 Etymology
3 Chemical analysis and production
3.1 Density
3.2 Volatility
3.3 Octane rating
3.4 World War II and octane ratings
4 Energy content
5 Additives
5.1 Lead
5.2 MMT
5.3 Ethanol
5.4 Dye
5.5 Oxygenate blending
6 Health concerns
7 Usage and pricing
7.1 United States
8 Stability
9 Other fuels
10 Bioconversion and biogasoline
11 See also
12 Notes
13 References
14 External links
//
Early uses
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Gasoline Pumps, Norway
Before gasoline was used as fuel for engines, it was sold in small bottles as a treatment against lice and their eggs. This treatment method is no longer common because of the inherent fire hazard and the risk of dermatitis.[citation needed]
In the United States, gasoline was also sold as a cleaning fluid to remove grease stains from clothing. Before dedicated filling stations were established, early motorists bought gasoline in cans to fill their tanks.
The name gasoline is similar to that of other petroleum products of the day, most notably petroleum jelly, a highly purified heavy distillate, which was branded Vaseline. The trademark Gasoline was never registered, and eventually became generic.
Gasoline was also used in kitchen ranges and for lighting, and is still available in a purified form, known as camping fuel, white gas or Coleman fuel, for use in lanterns and portable stoves.
During the Franco-Prussian War (1870–71), pétrole was stockpiled in Paris for use against a possible German-Prussian attack on the city. Later in 1871, during the revolutionary Paris Commune, rumours spread around the city of pétroleuses, women using bottles of petrol to commit arson against city buildings.
Etymology
The word "petrol" was first used in reference to the refined substance in 1892 (it was previously used to refer to unrefined petroleum), and was registered as a trade name by British wholesaler Carless, Capel & Leonard at the suggestion of Frederick Richard Simms.[1]
Carless's competitors used the term "motor spirit" until the 1930s, but never officially registered it as a trademark.[2][3]
In many countries gasoline is called Benzine or some variant. The usage derives from the chemical benzene, not from Bertha Benz, who used chemists' shops to purchase the gasoline, a detergent called Ligroin at that time, for her famous drive from Mannheim to Pforzheim and back in 1888, that is commemorated by Bertha Benz Memorial Route since 2008[4].
Chemical analysis and production
Oil refineries produce gasoline
A United States pumpjack
An oil rig in the Gulf of Mexico
Gasoline is produced in oil refineries. Material that is separated from crude oil via distillation, called virgin or straight-run gasoline, does not meet the required specifications for modern engines (in particular octane rating; see below), but will form part of the blend.
The bulk of a typical gasoline consists of hydrocarbons with between 4 and 12 carbon atoms per molecule.[5]
Many of these hydrocarbons are considered hazardous substances and are regulated in the United States by Occupational Safety and Health Administration. The Material Safety Data Sheet for unleaded gasoline shows at least fifteen hazardous chemicals occurring in various amounts. These include benzene (up to 5% by volume), toluene (up to 35% by volume), naphthalene (up to 1% by volume), trimethylbenzene (up to 7% by volume), MTBE (up to 18% by volume) and about ten others.[6] However, MTBE is no longer an additive to gasoline in some States.
The various refinery streams blended together to make gasoline all have different characteristics. Some important streams are:
Reformate, produced in a catalytic reformer with a high octane rating and high aromatic content, and very low olefins (alkenes).
Cat Cracked Gasoline or Cat Cracked Naphtha, produced from a catalytic cracker, with a moderate octane rating, high olefins (alkene) content, and moderate aromatics level. Here, "cat" is short for "catalytic".
Hydrocrackate (Heavy, Mid, and Light), produced from a hydrocracker, with medium to low octane rating and moderate aromatic levels.
Virgin or Straight-run Naphtha (has many names), directly from crude oil with low octane rating, low aromatics (depending on the crude oil), some naphthenes (cycloalkanes) and no olefins (alkenes).
Alkylate, produced in an alkylation unit, with a high octane rating and which is pure paraffin (alkane), mainly branched chains.
Isomerate (various names) which is obtained by isomerising the pentane and hexane[citation needed] in light virgin naphthas to yield their higher octane isomers.
(The terms used here are not always the correct chemical terms. They are the jargon normally used in the oil industry. The exact terminology for these streams varies by refinery and by country.)
Overall a typical gasoline is predominantly a mixture of paraffins (alkanes), naphthenes (cycloalkanes), and olefins (alkenes). The exact ratios can depend on
the oil refinery that makes the gasoline, as not all refineries have the same set of processing units.
the crude oil feed used by the refinery.
the grade of gasoline, in particular the octane rating.
Currently many countries set tight limits on gasoline aromatics in general, benzene in particular, and olefin (alkene) content. This is increasing the demand for high octane pure paraffin (alkane) components, such as alkylate, and is forcing refineries to add processing units to reduce the benzene content.
Gasoline can also contain some other organic compounds: such as organic ethers (deliberately added), plus small levels of contaminants, in particular sulfur compounds such as disulfides and thiophenes. Some contaminants, in particular thiols and hydrogen sulfide, must be removed because they cause corrosion in engines. Sulfur compounds are usually removed by hydrotreating, yielding hydrogen sulfide which can then be transformed into elemental sulfur via the Claus process.
Density
The specific density of gasoline ranges from 0.67–0.77, higher densities having a greater volume of aromatics.[7] (0.026 lb/in3; 719.7 kg/m3; 6.073 lb/US gal; 7.29 lb/imp gal). Gasoline floats on water, so water cannot generally be used to extinguish a gasoline fire. Because of its specific density, and relative incompressibility even at extreme pressure, gasoline was chosen as the float fluid in the Bathyscaphe Trieste, the craft which reached a record-breaking depth of 10,900 metres (35,761 ft) in the deepest part of any ocean on Earth.
Volatility
A plastic container for storing gasoline used in Germany
Gasoline is more volatile than diesel oil, Jet-A or kerosene, not only because of the base constituents, but because of the additives that are put into it. The final control of volatility is often achieved by blending with butane. The Reid Vapor Pressure (RVP) test is used to measure the volatility of gasoline. The desired volatility depends on the ambient temperature: in hotter climates, gasoline components of higher molecular weight and thus lower volatility are used. In cold climates, too little volatility results in cars failing to start. In hot climates, excessive volatility results in what is known as "vapor lock" where combustion fails to occur, because the liquid fuel has changed to a gaseous fuel in the fuel lines, rendering the fuel pump ineffective and starving the engine of fuel. (This effect mainly applies to engine-mounted fuel pumps; a fuel pump located in the fuel tank, as in most modern automobiles, is much more resistant to vapor lock.)
In the United States, volatility is regulated in large urban centers to reduce the emission of unburned hydrocarbons. In large cities, so-called reformulated gasoline that is less prone to evaporation, among other properties, is required. In Australia summer petrol volatility limits are set by State Governments and vary between capital cities. Most countries simply have a summer, winter and perhaps intermediate limit.
Volatility standards may be relaxed (allowing more gasoline components into the atmosphere) during emergency anticipated gasoline shortages. For example, on 31 August 2005 in response to Hurricane Katrina, the United States permitted the sale of non-reformulated gasoline in some urban areas, which effectively permitted an early switch from summer to winter-grade gasoline. As mandated by EPA administrator Stephen L. Johnson, this "fuel waiver" was made effective through 15 September 2005.[8] Though relaxed volatility standards may increase the atmospheric concentration of volatile organic compounds in warm weather, higher volatility gasoline effectively increases a nation's gasoline supply because the amount of butane in the gasoline pool is allowed to increase.[citation needed]
Besides lowering the volatility of the fuel, other means of controlling the emission of unburned hydrocarbons, for environmental concerns, exist and are exercised. All vehicles sold in the United States (since at least the 1980s, probably the 1970s or earlier) are required to have a fuel evaporative control system (called an EVAP system in automotive jargon) which collects expanding fuel vapor from the fuel tank in a charcoal-lined canister while the engine is stopped and then releases the collected vapors (through a "purge valve") into the engine intake for burning when the engine is running (usually only after it has reached normal operating temperature.) The fuel evaporative control system is also required to include a gasketed filling cap which seals the fueling inlet to prevent vapors from escaping directly from the tank through it. Modern vehicles with OBD-II emissions control systems will turn on the MIL (Malfunction Indicator Light, a.k.a. "check engine" light) if it is detected that the gas cap is missing or loose and so not sealing. (The general purpose of this light is to indicate when any of the emissions controls are not working properly.)
Octane rating
For more details on this topic, see octane rating.
It has been suggested that octane rating be merged into this article or section. (Discuss)
An important characteristic of gasoline is its octane rating, which is a measure of how resistant gasoline is to the abnormal combustion phenomenon known as pre-detonation (also known as knocking, pinging, spark knock, and other names). Deflagration is the normal type of combustion. Octane rating is measured relative to a mixture of 2,2,4-trimethylpentane (an isomer of octane) and n-heptane. There are a number of different conventions for expressing the octane rating; therefore, the same fuel may be labeled with a different number, depending upon the system used.
The octane rating became important in the search for higher output powers from aircraft engines in the late 1930s and the 1940s as it allowed higher compression ratios to be used.
[edit] World War II and octane ratings
This article needs additional citations for verification.Please help improve this article by adding reliable references. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (May 2007)
During World War II, Germany received much of its oil from Romania. From 2.8 million barrels (450×10^3 m3) in 1938, Romania’s exports to Germany increased to 13 million barrels (2.1×10^6 m3) by 1941, a level that was essentially maintained through 1942 and 1943, before dropping by half, due to Allied bombing and mining of the Danube. Although these exports were almost half of Romania’s total production, they were considerably less than what the Germans expected. Even with the addition of the Romanian deliveries, overland oil imports after 1939 could not make up for the loss of overseas shipments. In order to become less dependent on outside sources, the Germans undertook a sizable expansion program of their own meager domestic oil pumping. After 1938, the Austrian oil fields were made available, and the expansion of Nazi crude oil output was chiefly concentrated there. Primarily as a result of this expansion, the Reich's domestic output of crude oil increased from approximately 3.8 million barrels (600×10^3 m3) in 1938 to almost 12 million barrels (1.9×10^6 m3) in 1944. Even this was not enough.
Instead, Germany had developed a synthetic fuel capacity that was intended to replace imported or captured oil. Fuels were generated from coal, using either the Bergius process or the Fischer-Tropsch process. Between 1938 and 1943, synthetic fuel output underwent a respectable growth from 10 to 36 million barrels (1.6–5.7×106 m3). The percentage of synthetic fuels compared with the yield from all sources grew from 22% to more than 50% by 1943. The total oil supplies available from all sources for the same period rose from 45 million barrels (7.2×10^6 m3) in 1938 to 71 million barrels (11.3×10^6 m3) in 1943.
By the early 1930s, automobile gasoline had an octane rating of 40 and aviation gasoline a rating of 75-80. Aviation gasoline with such high octane numbers could only be refined through a process of distillation of high-grade petroleum. Germany’s domestic oil was not of this quality. Only the additive tetra-ethyl lead could raise the octane to a maximum of 87. The license for the production of this additive was acquired in 1935 from the American holder of the patents, but without high-grade Romanian oil even this additive was not very effective. 100 octane fuel, designated either 'C-2' (natural) or 'C-3' (synthethic) was introduced in late 1939 with the Daimler-Benz DB 601N engine, used in certain of the Luftwaffe`s Bf 109E and Bf 109F single-engined fighters, Bf 110C twin-engined fighters, and several bomber types. Some later combat types, most notably the BMW 801D-powered Fw 190A, F and G series, and later war Bf 109G and K models, used C-3 as well. The nominally 87 octane aviation fuel designated 'B-4' was produced in parallel during the war.
In the United States the oil was not "as good", and the oil industry had to invest heavily in various expensive boosting systems. This turned out to have benefits: the US industry started delivering fuels of increasing octane ratings by adding more of the boosting agents, and the infrastructure was in place for a post-war octane-agents additive industry. Good crude oil was no longer a factor during wartime, and by war's end American aviation fuel was commonly 130 octane, and 150 octane was available in limited quantities for fighters from the summer of 1944. This high octane could easily be used in existing engines to deliver much more power by increasing the pressure delivered by the superchargers.
In late 1942, the Germans increased the octane rating of their high-grade 'C-3' aviation fuel to 150 octane. The relative volumes of production of the two grades B-4 and C-3 cannot be accurately given, but in the last war years perhaps two-thirds of the total was C-3. Every effort was being made toward the end of the war to increase isoparaffin production; more isoparaffin meant more C-3 available for fighter plane use.
A common misconception exists concerning wartime fuel octane numbers. There are two octane numbers for each fuel, one for lean mix and one for rich mix, rich being greater. The misunderstanding that German fuels had a lower octane number (and thus a poorer quality) arose because the Germans quoted the lean mix octane number for their fuels while the Allies quoted the rich mix number. Standard German high-grade 'C-3' aviation fuel used in the later part of the war had lean/rich octane numbers of 100/130. The Germans listed this as a 100 octane fuel, the Allies as 130 octane.
After the war the US Navy sent a Technical Mission to Germany to interview German petrochemists and examine German fuel quality. Their report entitled “Technical Report 145-45 Manufacture of Aviation Gasoline in Germany” chemically analyzed the different fuels, and concluded that “Toward the end of the war the quality of fuel being used by the German fighter planes was quite similar to that being used by the Allies.”
Energy content
A plastic container used in the United States for storing gasoline.
Gasoline contains about 32.0 MJ/l (9.67 kWh/l, 132 MJ/US gal or 36.6 kWh/US gal). This is an average; gasoline blends differ, and therefore actual energy content varies from season to season and from batch to batch, by up to 4% more or less than the average, according to the US EPA. On average, about 19.5 US gallons (16.2 imp gal; 74 L) of gasoline are available from a 42-US-gallon (35 imp gal; 160 L) barrel of crude oil (about 46% by volume), varying due to quality of crude and grade of gasoline. The remaining residue comes off as products ranging from tar to naptha.[9]
Volumetric and mass energy density of some fuels compared with gasoline:[10]
Fuel type[clarification needed]
MJ/litre
MJ/kg
BTU/Imp gal
BTU/US gal
Research octanenumber (RON)
87 Octane Gasoline
32.0
44.4[11]
150,100
125,000
Min 91[clarification needed]
Autogas (LPG) (60% Propane + 40% Butane)
26.8
46
108
Ethanol
23.5
31.1[12]
101,600
84,600
129
Methanol
17.9
19.9
77,600
64,600
123
Butanol
29.2
36.6
91-99[clarification needed]
Gasohol (10% ethanol + 90% gasoline)
31.2
145,200
120,900
93/94[clarification needed]
Diesel(*)
38.6
45.4
166,600
138,700
25
Biodiesel
33.3-35.7 [13][clarification needed]
Aviation gasoline (high octane gasoline, not jet fuel)
33.5
46.8
144,400
120,200
Jet fuel (kerosene based)
35.1
43.8
151,242
125,935
Liquefied natural gas
25.3
55
109,000
90,800
Hydrogen
1-10[clarification needed]
121
130[14]
(*) Diesel fuel is not used in a gasoline engine, so its low octane rating is not an issue; the relevant metric for diesel engines is the cetane number
A high octane fuel such as Liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) has a lower energy content than lower octane gasoline, resulting in an overall lower power output at the regular compression ratio an engine ran at on gasoline. However, with an engine tuned to the use of LPG (i.e. via higher compression ratios such as 12:1 instead of 8:1), this lower power output can be overcome. This is because higher-octane fuels allow for a higher compression ratio - this means less space in a cylinder on its combustion stroke, hence a higher cylinder temperature which improves efficiency according to Carnot's theorem, along with fewer wasted hydrocarbons (therefore less pollution and wasted energy), bringing higher power levels coupled with less pollution overall because of the greater efficiency.
The main reason for the lower energy content (per litre) of LPG in comparison to gasoline is that it has a lower density. Energy content per kilogram is higher than for gasoline (higher hydrogen to carbon ratio). The weight-density of gasoline is about 740 kg/m³ (6.175 lb/US gal; 7.416 lb/imp gal).
Different countries have some variation in what RON (Research Octane Number) is standard for gasoline, or petrol. In the UK, ordinary regular unleaded petrol is 91 RON (not commonly available), premium unleaded petrol is always 95 RON, and super unleaded is usually 97-98 RON. However both Shell and BP produce fuel at 102 RON for cars with hi-performance engines, and the supermarket chain Tesco began in 2006 to sell super unleaded petrol rated at 99 RON. In the US, octane ratings in unleaded fuels can vary between 86-87 AKI (91-92 RON) for regular, through 89-90 AKI (94-95 RON) for mid-grade (European Premium), up to 90-94 AKI (95-99 RON) for premium (European Super).
Additives
Main article: Gasoline additive
Lead
The mixture known as gasoline, when used in high compression internal combustion engines, has a tendency to autoignite (detonation) causing a damaging "engine knocking" (also called "pinging") noise. Early research into this effect was led by A.H. Gibson and Harry Ricardo in England and Thomas Midgley and Thomas Boyd in the United States. The discovery that lead additives modified this behavior led to the widespread adoption of their use in the 1920s and therefore more powerful higher compression engines. The most popular additive was tetra-ethyl lead. However, with the discovery of the environmental and health damage caused by the lead, and the incompatibility of lead with catalytic converters found on virtually all newly sold US automobiles since 1975, this practice began to wane (encouraged by many governments introducing differential tax rates) in the 1980s. Most countries are phasing out leaded fuel; different additives have replaced the lead compounds. The most popular additives include aromatic hydrocarbons, ethers and alcohol (usually ethanol or methanol). In the US, where lead had been blended with gasoline (primarily to boost octane levels) since the early 1920s, standards to phase out leaded gasoline were first implemented in 1973 - due in great part to studies conducted by Philip J. Landrigan. In 1995, leaded fuel accounted for only 0.6% of total gasoline sales and less than 2,000 short tons (1,800 t) of lead per year. From 1 January 1996, the Clean Air Act banned the sale of leaded fuel for use in on-road vehicles. Possession and use of leaded gasoline in a regular on-road vehicle now carries a maximum $10,000 fine in the US. However, fuel containing lead may continue to be sold for off-road uses, including aircraft, racing cars, farm equipment, and marine engines.[15] The ban on leaded gasoline led to thousands of tons of lead not being released in the air by automobiles. Similar bans in other countries have resulted in lowering levels of lead in people's bloodstreams.[16][17]
A side effect of the lead additives was protection of the valve seats from erosion. Many classic cars' engines have needed modification to use lead-free fuels since leaded fuels became unavailable. However, "Lead substitute" products are also produced and can sometimes be found at auto parts stores. These were scientifically tested and some were approved by the Federation of British Historic Vehicle Clubs at the UK's Motor Industry Research Association (MIRA) in 1999.[18]
Gasoline, as delivered at the pump, also contains additives to reduce internal engine carbon buildups, improve combustion, and to allow easier starting in cold climates.
In some parts of South America, Asia, Eastern Europe and the Middle East, leaded gasoline is still in use. Leaded gasoline was phased out in sub-Saharan Africa effective 1 January 2006. A growing number of countries have drawn up plans to ban leaded gasoline in the near future. However, in Britain there is now a growing market for using Four Star leaded petrol in classic cars and motorcycles because of detonation and valve seat erosion. A sole petroleum wholesaler, the Bayford Group, is EU-licenced to distribute the leaded fuel and it is sold at select outlets around the UK. Not all counties are covered and the fuel costs approximately twice that of unleaded petrol.
MMT
Methylcyclopentadienyl manganese tricarbonyl (MMT) has been used for many years in Canada and recently in Australia to boost octane. It also helps old cars designed for leaded fuel run on unleaded fuel without need for additives to prevent valve problems.
US Federal sources state that MMT is suspected to be a powerful neurotoxin and respiratory toxin,[19] and a large Canadian study concluded that MMT impairs the effectiveness of automobile emission controls and increases pollution from motor vehicles.[20]
In 1977 use of MMT was banned in the US by the Clean Air Act until the Ethyl Corporation could prove that the additive would not lead to failure of new car emissions-control systems. As a result of this ruling, the Ethyl Corporation began a legal battle with the EPA, presenting evidence that MMT was harmless to automobile emissions-control systems. In 1995 the US Court of Appeals ruled that the EPA had exceeded its authority, and MMT became a legal fuel additive in the US. MMT is nowadays manufactured by the Afton Chemical Corporation division of Newmarket Corporation.[21]
Ethanol
In the United States, ethanol is sometimes added to gasoline but sold without an indication that it is a component. Chevron, 76, Shell, and several other brands market ethanol-gasoline blends.[citation needed]
In several states, ethanol is added by law to a minimum level which is currently 5.9%. Most fuel pumps display a sticker stating that the fuel may contain up to 10% ethanol, an intentional disparity which allows the minimum level to be raised over time without requiring modification of the literature/labelling. The bill which was being debated at the time the disclosure of the presence of ethanol in the fuel was mandated has recently passed. This law (Energy Policy Act of 2005) will require all auto fuel to contain at least 10% ethanol. Many call this fuel mix gasohol.
In the EU, 5% ethanol can be added within the common gasoline spec (EN 228). Discussions are ongoing to allow 10% blending of ethanol. Most countries (fuel distributors) today do not add so much ethanol.[citation needed] Most gasoline (petrol) sold in Sweden has 5% ethanol added.
In Brazil, the Brazilian National Agency of Petroleum, Natural Gas and Biofuels (ANP) requires that gasoline for automobile use has 23% of ethanol added to its composition.
Dye
Main article: Fuel dyes
In the United States the most commonly used aircraft gasoline, avgas, or aviation gas, is known as 100LL (100 octane, low lead) and is dyed blue. Red dye has been used for identifying untaxed (non-highway use) agricultural diesel. The UK uses red dye to differentiate between regular diesel fuel, (often referred to as DERV from Diesel-Engined Road Vehicle), which is undyed, and diesel intended for agricultural and construction vehicles like excavators and bulldozers. Red diesel is still occasionally used on HGVs which use a separate engine to power a loader crane. This is a declining practice however, as many loader cranes are powered directly by the tractor unit.
Oxygenate blending
Oxygenate blending adds oxygen to the fuel in oxygen-bearing compounds such as MTBE, ETBE and ethanol, and so reduces the amount of carbon monoxide and unburned fuel in the exhaust gas, thus reducing smog. In many areas throughout the US oxygenate blending is mandated by EPA regulations to reduce smog and other airborne polutants. For example, in Southern California, fuel must contain 2% oxygen by weight, resulting in a mixture of 5.6% ethanol in gasoline. The resulting fuel is often known as reformulated gasoline (RFG) or oxygenated gasoline. The federal requirement that RFG contain oxygen was dropped 6 May 2006 because the industry had developed VOC-controlled RFG that did not need additional oxygen.[22]
MTBE use is being phased out in some states due to issues with contamination of ground water. In some places, such as California, it is already banned. Ethanol and to a lesser extent the ethanol derived ETBE are a common replacements. Especially since ethanol derived from biomatter such as corn, sugar cane or grain is frequent, this will often be referred to as bio-ethanol. A common ethanol-gasoline mix of 10% ethanol mixed with gasoline is called gasohol or E10, and an ethanol-gasoline mix of 85% ethanol mixed with gasoline is called E85. The most extensive use of ethanol takes place in Brazil, where the ethanol is derived from sugarcane. In 2004, over 3.4 billion US gallons (2.8 billion imp gal/13 million m³) of ethanol was produced in the United States for fuel use, mostly from corn, and E85 is slowly becoming available in much of the United States. Unfortunately many of the relatively few stations vending E85 are not open to the general public.[23] The use of bioethanol, either directly or indirectly by conversion of such ethanol to bio-ETBE, is encouraged by the European Union Directive on the Promotion of the use of biofuels and other renewable fuels for transport. However since producing bio-ethanol from fermented sugars and starches involves distillation, ordinary people in much of Europe cannot legally ferment and distill their own bio-ethanol at present (unlike in the US where getting a BATF distillation permit has been easy since the 1973 oil crisis.)
Health concerns
Uncontrolled burning of gasoline produces large quantities of soot.
Many of the non-aliphatic hydrocarbons naturally present in gasoline (especially aromatic ones like benzene), as well as many anti-knocking additives, are carcinogenic. Because of this, any large-scale or ongoing leaks of gasoline pose a threat to the public's health and the environment, should the gasoline reach a public supply of drinking water. The chief risks of such leaks come not from vehicles, but from gasoline delivery truck accidents and leaks from storage tanks. Because of this risk, most (underground) storage tanks now have extensive measures in place to detect and prevent any such leaks, such as sacrificial anodes. Gasoline is rather volatile (meaning it readily evaporates), requiring that storage tanks on land and in vehicles be properly sealed. The high volatility also means that it will easily ignite in hot weather conditions, unlike diesel for example. Appropriate venting is needed to ensure the level of pressure is similar on the inside and outside. Gasoline also reacts dangerously with certain common chemicals.
Gasoline is also one of the sources of pollutant gases. Even gasoline which does not contain lead or sulfur compounds produces carbon dioxide, nitrogen oxides, and carbon monoxide in the exhaust of the engine which is running on it. Furthermore, unburnt gasoline and evaporation from the tank, when in the atmosphere, react in sunlight to produce photochemical smog. Addition of ethanol increases the volatility of gasoline.
Through misuse as an inhalant, gasoline also contributes to damage to health. Petrol sniffing is a common way of obtaining a high for many people and has become epidemic in some poorer communities and indigenous groups in America, Australia, Canada, New Zealand and some Pacific Islands.[24] In response, Opal fuel has been developed by the BP Kwinana Refinery in Australia, and contains only 5% aromatics (unlike the usual 25%) which inhibits the effects of inhalation.[25]
Like other alkanes, gasoline burns in the vapor phase and, coupled with its volatility, this makes leaks highly dangerous when sources of ignition are present. Many accidents involve gasoline being used in an attempt to light bonfires; rather than helping the material on the bonfire to burn, some of the gasoline vaporises quickly after being poured and mixes with the surrounding air, so when the fire is lit a moment later the vapor surrounding the bonfire instantly ignites in a large fireball, engulfing the unwary user. The vapor is also heavier than air and tends to collect in garage inspection pits.
Usage and pricing
Main articles: Gasoline usage and pricing, Global warming, and Peak oil
UK petrol prices
The US accounts for about 44% of the world’s gasoline consumption.[26] In 2003 The US consumed 476.474 gigalitres (1.25871×1011 US gal; 1.04810×1011 imp gal),[27] which equates to 1.3 gigalitres of gasoline each day (about 360 million US or 300 million imperial gallons). The US used about 510 billion litres (138 billion US gal/115 billion imp gal) of gasoline in 2006, of which 5.6% was mid-grade and 9.5% was premium grade.[28]
Western countries have among the highest usage rates per person.
Based on externalities, some countries, e.g. in Europe and Japan, impose heavy fuel taxes on fuels such as gasoline.
United States
Because a greater proportion of the price of gasoline in the United States is due to the cost of oil, rather than taxes, the price of the retail product is subject to greater fluctuations (vs. outside the US) when calculated as a percentage of cost-per-unit, but is actually less variable in absolute terms.
Unlike other goods in the United States, gasoline is sold with tax included. Taxes are added by federal, state and local governments. As of 2009, the federal tax is 18.4¢ per gallon for gasoline and 24.4¢ per gallon for diesel (excluding Red diesel). [29] Among states, the highest gasoline tax rates, including the federal taxes as of 2005, are New York (62.9¢/gal), Hawaii (60.1¢/gal), & California (60¢/gal). [30] However, many states' taxes are a percentage and thus vary in amount depending on the cost of the gasoline.
Stability
When gasoline is left for a period of time, gums and varnishes may build up and precipitate in the gasoline, causing "stale fuel". This will cause gums to build up in the fuel tank, lines, and carburetor or fuel injection components making it harder to start the engine. Motor gasoline may be stored up to 60 days in an approved container. If it is to be stored for a longer period of time, a fuel stabilizer may be used. This will extend the life of the fuel to about 1–2 years, and keep it fresh for the next uses. Fuel stabilizer is commonly used for small engines such as lawnmower and tractor engines to promote quicker and more reliable starting. Users have been advised to keep gasoline containers and tanks more than half full and properly capped to reduce air exposure, to avoid storage at high temperatures,[31] to run an engine for ten minutes to circulate the stabilizer through all components prior to storage, and to run the engine at intervals to purge stale fuel from the carburetor.[32]
Gummy, sticky resin deposits result from oxidative degradation of gasoline. This degradation can be prevented through the use of antioxidants such as phenylenediamines, alkylenediamines (diethylenetriamine, triethylenetetramine, etc), and alkylamines (diethylamine, tributylamine, ethylamine). Other useful additives include gum inhibitors such as N-substituted alkylaminophenols and colour stabilizers such as N-(2-aminoethyl)piperazine, N,N-diethylhydroxylamine, and triethylenetetramine.[33]
Improvements in refinery techniques have generally reduced the reliance on the catalytically or thermally cracked stocks most susceptible to oxidation.[34] Gasoline containing acidic contaminants such as naphthenic acids can be addressed with additives including strongly basic organo-amines such as N,N-diethylhydroxylamine, preventing metal corrosion and breakdown of other antioxidant additives due to acidity. Hydrocarbons with a bromine number of 10 or above can be protected with the combination of unhindered or partially hindered phenols and oil soluble strong amine bases such as monoethanolamine, N-(2-aminoethyl)piperazine, cyclohexylamine, 1,3-cyclohexane-bis(methylamine), 2,5-dimethylaniline, 2,6-dimethylaniline, diethylenetriamine and triethylenetetramine.[33]
"Stale" gasoline can be detected by a colorimetric enzymatic test for organic peroxides produced by oxidation of the gasoline.[35]
Other fuels
Main articles: Alternative fuel and Biofuel
Many of these alternatives are less damaging to the environment than gasoline, but the first generation biofuels are still not 100 percent clean.
Biofuels:
Biodiesel, for diesel engines.
Refined vegetable oil
Fischer-Tropsch diesel from biomass
Biobutanol, for gasoline engines.
Bioethanol.
Biogasoline.
Compressed air
Hydrogen fuel
Electricity
Fossil fuels:
CNG (Compressed Natural Gas)
Petrodiesel
Bioconversion and biogasoline
Main article: Biogasoline
XcelPlus Global Holdings working in conjunction with Maverick BioFuels developed the technology in which a fuel compatible with internal combustion gasoline engines is derived from natural renewable oils like soybean, other vegetable oils and biodiesel.
Companies such as Sapphire Energy are developing a means to "grow" gasoline, that is, produce it directly from living organisms (i.e. algae). Biogasoline has the advantage of not needing any change in vehicle or distribution infrastructure.
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